LECTURES 



UPON 



PORTIONS OF HISTORY, 



WITH 



HISTORICAL OUTLINES 

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, 

COMPILED FROM THE PRINTED CHARTS AND 
UNPUBLISHED MANUSCRIPTS 



OF THE LATE 



./ ; 



HENRY BOSTWICK, 

liECTCRER ON HISTORY IN THE CITY Or N E W - Y O R K . 



N E W - Y O R K 




PRINTED BY HENRY LUDWIG, 

NO, 72, V E S E Y - S T R E E T. 

1 838. 



Ef.'TEUED, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1833, 

By Samuel B. Ruggles, ICsq. 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern 

DISTRICT OF NEW-TOKK. 



Hi 



PREFACE. 

In the accompanying volume the reader is presented with 
Tlii'ee Historical Lectures, prepared for the press by the late 
Henry Bostwick, for many j^ears an eminent lecturer on History 
in the city of New- York. Strongly marked by the accurate 
thought and spirited expression which characterized Mr. Bost- 
wick's style, they present a rapid and singularly original outline 
of History from the creation of the world to the time of Philip 
of Macedon, intended as the introduction to an etxensive series 
which the author unhappily did not live to complete. He died 
in the city of New- York, deeply lamented by his numerous 
pupils and friends, June, 1836, in /the 49th year of his age. 
These lectures are followed by 

1. An Epitome of Ancient Geography. 

2. An Outline of History from the creation to 3500 A. M. 

. 3. A continuation of the Outline from 3500 to the time of 
Augustus. 

4. A Chronological Index of the most important events from 
A. M. 3250 to 4004. 

5. A further continuation of the Outline, &c., to the reign of 
Charlemagne, A. D. 800. 

6. A Chronological Index from the birth of Christ to the reign 
of Charlemagne. 



IV PREFACE. 

7. Fragments of History of Spain, Gaul, Italy, after the 
time of Charlemagne. 

8. A Table of European Sovereigns from 800 to the present 
time. 

This portion of the volume is a compilation in part from Mr. 
Bostwick's printed historical charts, and in part from notes of his 
umoritten lectures, taken by his pupils. 

The Appendix contains a /Sytichronistic Table of events of 
ancient history ; a table of ancient kings, fabulous and historical, 
with the Roman emperors divided into classes ; a Brief /Sketch 
of the Schools of Philosophy among the Greeks ; with an account 
of the Origin and Division of the Hellenic races ; the whole 
designed to accompany and illustrate Mr. Bostwick's Historical 
Atlas for the use of classes and schools. 

Two Charts have been superadded, the first comprehending a 
combination of History and Chronology, corresponding with 
Chart No. 1, and the second with Chart No. 5, of Mr. Bost- 
wick's Atlas. 



OUTLINE OF HISTORY, 



FROM THE 



Creation of the World to the time of Philip of Macedon, 
IN three: IjECtumss. 



LECTURE I, 



The history of the early ages of the world is involved in the gloom 
of uncertainty, that necessarily results from the infancy and ignorance 
of nations, vi'hen letters are unknown, and events pass unrecorded. 
The sacred annals have preserved from oblivion the transactions of 
one small nation, the Hebrews, with slight and occasional notices of 
the bordering States ; but even these annals, adequate, indeed, to their 
grand design, fail, in a thousand particulars, to satisfy our busy curi- 
osity. We are left in irretrievable perplexity in attempting to adjust 
the doubtful points of chronology. 

In this dilemma, since we must not overlook such a lapse of centu- 
ries, we have to resort to those faint gleams of light, which barely re- 
deem us from total darkness ; and we must often submit to reiterate 
the mere conjectures of others, instead of delivering the convictions of 
our own minds. Curiosity expects it, and deference for others author- 
izes it. 

Adopting the received chronology, a period of four thousand and 
four years fills the dreary interval from the creation to the birth of 
Christ; and, excepting the last five hundred years of this period, pro- 
fane history is either silent or doubtful for all the rest. 

A cloud of uncertainty obscures the most important transactions ; 
and even where the leading events can be traced, the detail only pre- 
sents a field for vague conjecture, and absurd romance. 

The first two thousand years defy the research of the profane histo- 
rian, and expose his curiosity to ridicule. From the Mosaic account, 
admitting the Hebrew copy, Adam, commencing with the world, mea- 
sures off 930 years of the first thousand. From the death of Adam, in 
930, one hundred and twenty-six years carry us down to the birth of 
Noah, in 1056, whose protracted years, descending to 2006, roll us 
through the second thousand years, marked only by two great events, 
the flood in 1656, and the dispersion, one hundred years after the flood 
in 1756. The events of the Flood, when Noah was six hundred years 
old, are distinctly recorded ; but the scriptural, as well as profane ac- 
counts, shed but a faint glimmering light on the particulars of the 
Dispersion in 1756. 

1 



2 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [lECT. I. 

A majority of critics agree in fixing- the scone of man's creation in 
Chaldea, on the Euphrates : but, since the sacred volume has not de- 
cided, we may safely abandon the inquiry to the vain ambition of men, 
who, disdaining the road that lies open to truth, delight to roam in the 
regions of novelty and conjecture. The example of others, and many 
passages in Scripture, warrant our assuming Chaldea as the centre 
from which the scattering sons of Noah, and perhaps that patriarch 
himself, were dispersed after the confusion of tongues, into different 
regions and climes, to people the unknown countries of the earth. 

In this important migration, we have distinct authority, in the sacred 
books, to follow Ham and his posterity into Arabia, Canaan, and 
Egypt. The name of Canaan, the accursed son of Ham, was commu- 
nicated to the little country where his eleven sons settled, — the proge- 
nitors of eleven Canaanitish tribes ; (see chart.) Three centuries 
(327 years) after the Dispersion, the appearance of Abraham in this 
land, and the promise of God to him, fixed upon it the name of " Pro- 
mised Land." The conquest of the land by Abraham's descendants, 
the Israelites, gave it the name of Israel, while it transferred the whole 
country from the posterity of Ham to the posterity of Shem, from 
whom Abraham descended, the chosen father of a peculiar people. 

With respect to Japhet, we must be content to despatch him into 
Asia Minor and Europe, and adopt him as the father of the early na- 
tions dispersed through those countries, without entangling our narra- 
tive with minute genealogy, or putting credulity to the severe test of 
etymological refinement. 

Shem, as the particular ancestor of Abraham, stands, of course, in 
the patriarchal line, and claims more attention : we distribute his sons 
between those of Ham and Japhet, through a succession of states, 
reaching from the Levant, indefinitely into the East. Aram gave his 
name to the little country since called Syria, north of Canaan, and to 
Padan-Aram, distinguished from this, — another country between the 
Euphrates and Tigris, since called Mesopotamia, — Ashur is now As- 
syria ; Elam is Persia; and Shinaar, or Chaldea, seems to have de- 
rived its inhabitants from Arphaxad, without assuming his name. 
This last son of Shem was the ancestor of Abraham, and Abraham is 
expressly said to have come from Chaldea. 

A thousand years, (from 2000 to 3000,) commences with the birth of 
Abraham, in 2008 ; and its close witnesses Solomon arrayed in all 
his glory, swaying the sceptre of Israel, and the nations conquered by 
David. Moses flourishes ; and the Grecian States were founded half 
way between Abraham and Solomon, about 2500. The peaceful resi- 
dence of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, among the Canaanites, from 
2083 to 2298, a period of two hundred and fifteen years, added to the 
residence in Egypt of the same number of years, makes the sum of 
430, from the calling to the Exodus, or deliverance from Egypt by 
Moses, in 2513. Moses had lived forty years in Egypt at the court of 
Pharaoh, forty years with his father-in-law Jethro, in Midian, when 
he commenced his journey through the wilderness, which lasted ano- 
ther forty years. He died on the east side of the Jordan, having con- 
quered the country on that side, and Joshua crossed the Jordan, and 
completed the conquest of Canaan. 



LECT. I.] OUTLINEOFHISTORY. 3 

The country took the name of Israel, being- divided into twelve 
tribes, corresponding to the number of Jacob's sons. No particular 
form of government was instituted ; the laws of Moses established at 
Sinai were in force, and the authority of the priests was respected. 
Extraordinary circumstances raised up extraordinary personages to 
deliver the nation from the bondage and servitude into which they were 
frequently reduced by the idolatrous nations around them. These ex- 
traordinary persons were styled Judges ; their authority usually ex- 
pired with the occasion that called it forth. From the historical book 
called Judges, we derive our imperfect knowledge of this loose and 
disorderly period of more than three hundred and fifty years, from 
Joshua to Saul, the first king of Israel, whose reign is computed to 
have commenced in 2909. 

The idolatry of the neighbouring tribes corrupted the children of 
Israel ; discord and degeneracy among themselves exposed them to 
the snares of their enemies, and they often groaned in cruel bondage. 
The Philistines on the south-west, sprung from Misraim, a son of 
Ham, who settled in Egypt. The Syrians, or Aramites, on the north, 
descended from Aram, a son of Shem. Six other surrounding tribes 
branched from the same stock with Abraham, and, of course, arose 
after his removal into this land. The Moabites and Ammonites from 
Lot ; the Ishmaelifes and Midianites from Abraham directly ; the 
Edomites and Amalekites from Esau, the grandson of Abraham. 

Saul, the first king of Israel, was unable to remedy the disorders 
and distress into which the transgressions of his countrymen had 
plunged them. The sceptre that fell from his feeble hands, passed 
into those of his illustrious rival and successor, David. In a busy 
reign of forty years, that great and warlike monarch introduced order 
into the government, established commerce, subdued the tribes that 
had so often opposed Israel, and erected a splendid monarchy. The 
reign of his son, Solomon, was peaceful and splendid ; commerce still 
flourished, and the most magnificent structure arose to adorn his capi- 
tal. But the glory of Israel expired with the son of David, in 3029 ; 
discord and dismemberment rent the kingdom, and disgraced the reign 
of Rehoboam, the son of Solomon. Desolation and captivity will fol- 
low ; but we must turn from the disgusting picture, to trace the origin 
and revolutions of other States. 

The early origin of the Egyptian monarchy is attested by the Jew- 
ish annals ; a remote and fabulous antiquity is the vain boast of Egyp- 
tian priests. We can imagine every thing for early ages ; nothing 
can be denied ; nothing can be authenticated. Wisdom is silent; but 
the prerogatives of loquacious folly may be indulged without harm. 
We need not wage war against the random speculations about un- 
searchable things, merely because we choose to decline them. Let us 
be employed about known realities ; freely resign to others the honour 
of guessing, precisely, when each early throne was established, and of 
divining the names of a race of monarchs, their joys, their griefs, their 
glories, their disgraces, their conquests, and their overthrows. The 
curiosity must be ardent in pursuit, that is not sobered by reading and 
research. Let it rage. 

Independent of Jewish testimony, the proud structures of Egypt are 



4 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [lECT. 1» 

monuments of time and labour, as they are of the absurd ambition of 
kings, and the slavish stupiditj^ of their people. There is no doubt 
that the country was early populous. Rich in soil and spontaneous 
resources, men could not fail to multiply. The increase of the Israel- 
ites during- the bondage, exceeds the bounds of imagination. Many 
events must have happened in such a country ; but who now can re- 
claim such events from the oblivion to which the ignorance of the age 
consigned them. Yet many authors have pursued the subject, and un- 
folded many wonders with an air of confidence, and we need not choose 
to deprive them of their pleasure or their laurels. 

Shall we let Serairamis sleep? the conquering heroine of those re- 
mote ages, the mighty monarch of Assyria? It is doubtful whether her 
first conquest was over her husband or her son. After that, her bio- 
graphers seem to think that her conquests knew no bounds. The de- 
serts, rivers, mountains of the distant east, could not withstand her in- 
vading hosts. Where she found armies to lead forth, or people to con- 
quer, could not be easily determined, as her time is fixed before that of 
Abraham, who conquered four eastern kings with four hundred men ; 
and one of these kings must have been a successor of Semiramis. The 
people seem to have been thinly scattered over the face of the earth, till 
lono- after the time of Abraham ; and it is obvious from the Jewish re- 
cords, that no great eastern monarchy could have existed till after the 
time of Solomon. The conclusion is, that from Abraham, to Solomon, 
men Avere emigrating, and forming new settlements and petty king- 
doms, but that no great eastern monarchy yet existed. 

The foundation of Rome was laid in a later period, 3250 : but the 
Grecian States rise in the days of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, 
Moses. In their days the Grecian gods probably lived or reigned on 
earth : their offspring were too numerous to accompany their divine 
parents to their celestial abodes ; but on earth, the descendants of Ju- 
piter, Mars, Vulcan, Venus, wjth the inferior lustre of demigods, heroes, 
kings, &c., enjoyed and indulged the prerogatives due to their illus- 
trious pedigree. 

From Moses to David, Israel, under its Judges, presents a gloomy 
pictuie of brutal manners, and human depravity. The same age in 
Greece, while it shocks us with the most horrid exhibitions of savage 
ferocity, and licentious pleasure, at the same time confounds our ima- 
ginations with the most brilliant displays of wild and heroic adventures, 
that the frantic rage of ambition could suggest to disordered minds. 
The Grecian heroes directed their fierce attacks with equal fury 
against men and devouring monsters. Glory prompted, passion spur- 
red them to the slaughter; generosity, sympathy, revenge, might often 
supply the motive or excuse; but no consideration could ever abate 
the rage of battle, or assuage the fierceness of the savage bosom. 

These wild adventures come down to us in the dress of the Grecian 
muses, adorned with fiction engrafted upon fiction, by successive bards, 
whose raptures confound the calm serenity of a mind composed to suit 
the settled state of modern times. 

We may weep or laugh at the follies of man, according to our con- 
stitutional bias or occasional mood. It is certain, that without a sub- 
ject and an impulse, Homer's muse would have been silent. 



LECT. I.] OUTLINEOFHISTORY. 5 

We are unable to name the son of Japhet, who first crossed the 
narrow seas, and trod the enchanted shores of Greece. We may pre- 
tend to tell the year when the several monarchies began ; but the foun- 
dation of a monarchy supposes a previous population. Perhaps the 
kingdom' of Sicyon was erected as early as the 1915th year of the 
world, ninety-three years before the birth of i^raham. Who can dispute 
that Argos was founded in 2183, the very year of Abraham's death? 

It is at least harmless to believe with the Greek writers, that the 
Athenian, Spartan, Theban, Trojan monarchies, commenced in the 
time of Moses, about 2500. 

We need not quarrel with the fifty daughters of Danaus, married to 
the fifty sons of his brother Egyptus ; and it would be useless to la- 
ment the fate of forty-nine, out of the fifty bridegrooms sacrificed by 
their brides, since one was spared to propagate the royal line. 

The throne of Argos, founded 2183, was usurped in the time of 
Moses, by this same Danaus, an emigrant from Egypt, from whom 
sprang Perseus and Hercules. Cecrops, anothir Egyptian emigrant, 
was the founder of Athens. The Phenician Cadmus, in pursuit of his 
sister Europa, if you please, built Thebes, in Boeotia, and perhaps in- 
troduced into Greece an alphabet, before unknown to the savage nations. 

The blaze of glory and splendour that broke out in Greece in a 
later period, and illumined the two centuries, from 3500 to 3700, 
arouses our ardent curiosity to investigate their early history, and ex- 
plore the various causes that were then conspiring to their future lustre. 
Bold fictions, or ridiculous conceits, may satisfy credulity ; but they 
disgust the sober inquirer, who demands well-attested facts, and pro- 
bable conclusions. Herodotus, the first profane historian, began to 
write when the glory of Greece was nearly at its summit. When he 
records the events that passed before him, he commands our implicit 
belief. When he relates the tales of antiquity, painfully collected in 
his travels and researches, we scrutinize, and adopt only what is pro- 
bable. In investigations of this nature, we ought to ascertain, as soon 
as possible, what lies hidden from human research, and direct our faith- 
ful aim to the discovery of useful and probable facts. This rigid prin- 
ciple rejects at once, a cumbrous mass of fiction and folly, and advances 
us directly forward in our pursuit. Let us not be understood as dis- 
paraging the reading of fiction, because the creeds and superstitions 
of mankind form a necessary branch of study, and make a part of 
history. It is only a rigid criterion that we recommend, by which, 
while we read, we can separate truth from falsehood or folly. 

That Greece was peopled by emigrants from Asia, seems to be uni- 
versally conceded ; the exact time is unknown and unimportant. We 
care not whether whole colonies passed over at different times, or whe- 
ther there was a constant tide of emigration. The emigration of Dan- 
aus, Cecrops, and Cadmus, in the time of Moses, presents an inquiry 
of more importance, as they are said to have imported with them into 
Greece, the arts, institutions, and superstitions of Egypt and Phenicia ; 
but the tale is incumberi'd with fiction, and perplexed with difiiculties. 
As Greece was a country that offered great allurements to strangers, 
the most sober conclusion seems to be, that emigration flowed to it from 
Asia unceasingly, till the different communities were filled, the national 
character formed, and national jealousies imbibed. Some foreign su- 



6 * OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [leCT. I. 

perstitions may have blended with their own ; but we'may venture to 
advance the opinion that the whole structure of Grecian mythology 
was conceived and reared in Greece, in the face of all the vague specu- 
lations of writers who would derive it from Egypt and Asia. The 
Grecian character, as well as Grecian transactions, arose, naturally, 
from the enterprise of emigrants, the constant intercourse of strangers, 
the facilities that sea and land offered for such intercourse, soil, cli- 
mate, face of the country, &c. ; and their fiction naturally sprung from 
their ardent character, and wild adventures. 

From the time of Cadmus, 2500 to 3000, we have the Calydonian 
chase, Argonautic expedition, Theban wars, expulsion of the Herac- 
lidae, or race of Hercules, from the Peloponnesus, by the race of Pelops; 
the Trojan war, the recovery of the Peloponnesus by the Heraclidse, 
the migration of iEolian, Dorian, and Ionian Greeks into Asia Minor, 
and the abolition of monarchy in many States of Greece. To pro- 
nounce all these adventures mere fiction, is as absurd as it is difficult to 
separate truth from embellishment. The Argonautic expedition from 
Greece to Colchis, is an enigma, to exercise the sagacity of men who 
can find no other employment. The Calydonian chase terminated in 
the tragic death of a furious wild boar, sent by the gods to ravage ^to- 
lia, and chased by all the princes of the age, affording a sublime theme 
for heroic song. The two Theban wars signify the mutual slaughter 
of Theban and Argive heroes, breathing vengeance for mutual inju- 
ries; and happily, the muses have perpetuated the bloody scenes. The 
expulsion of the Heraclidse descended from Danaus and Perseus, was, 
indeed, a lamentable injustice done to that illustrious race, to be expi- 
ated afterwards by the descendants of Pelops, the guilty offenders. 
Agamemnon, king of Argos, Menelaus, king of Sparta, in right of 
queen Helen, — these were of the race of Pelops, heroes of the Trojan 
war. Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, ought to have been ashamed 
to abuse the hospitality of Menelaus, by bearing off in triumph the will- 
ing spouse of the Spartan king. This injury was enough to kindle 
the flame of war, and provoke a wasting siege of ten years, that laid 
proud Troy in smoking ruins. The closing scene of this tragedy 
occurred in 2820. 

At length, just eighty years later, in 2900, the exiled HeraclidsB, 
after countless misadventures, poured into the Peloponnesus at differ- 
ent points, accompanied by their Dorian allies, in superior numbers, 
and recovered their ancient thrones and hereditary territories. Their 
triumphant return was fruitful in events, commotions, and emigrations, 
which we should mark with careful attention. From this time the 
Doric population and character prevailed in the Peloponnesus, and the 
descendants of Hercules swayed the sceptre, while those who fled 
formed new intermixtures, and new colonies, of stupendous fame. The 
Achaians, oppressed by the invading host, fell upon the lonians, their 
neighbours, and drove them to seek new settlements. The Athenians 
received the fugitives in such numbers, that the Ionian character and 
dialect prevailed. About thirty years later, 2930, Codrus, the last king 
of Athens, following the suggestion of an oracle, rushed into battle, and 
sought death, to save his country from the fierce attack of the Herac- 
lidsB, who, not satisfied with the recovery of the Peloponnesus, aimed to 
subdue their neighbours. With Codrus, monarchy ended at Athens ; 



LECT I.] OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 7 

the office of hereditary archon was instituted in favour of one of his sons ; 
the others withdrew in disgust, and drawing many others with them, 
passed over into Asia Minor, and founded an Ionian nation. The 
^Eolians had already seated themselves further north, on the same 
coast ; and not far from the same time, some wandering Dorians occu- 
pied the coast south of the lonians. 

To recapitulate these important events. The Achaians dispossessed 
the lonians, and remained in the Peloponnesus, where we shall see 
them in the last stage of Greece, then, for the first time, the leading 
power, making the last stand against the Romans. The banished 
lonians, received at Athens, impart their character and language. On 
the death of Codrus, a portion of them settle in Asia Minor, where 
they, as well as the ^olians and Dorians, after many vicissitudes, 
will become a numerous, flourishing, and magnificent people. From 
this time, an impulse of busy enterprise diffused the Grecian name 
and nation throughout every coast and island of the Medherranean. 
From this time we no longer estimate the greatness of Greece by the 
narrow limits that the name implies. 

For five hundred years after 3000, Greece is not inactive ; and yet 
we say the whole five hundred years is nothing but preparation and 
approach to the splendid scene which bursts forth in 3500. 

We stand at 3000, and take a rapid review of five hundred years, a 
period that aflfords only glimmering light ; but it is the dawn of a 
bright day. For half the period before us, that is, for two hundred 
and fifty years after 3000, the Greeks claim but a small share of our 
notice. In this interval, emigration continues, and some of the States 
new model their government and laws. Aristocratic or democratic 
institutions are substituted for monarchy in almost every State except 
Sparta. In that celebrated city reigned jointly, two kings of the race 
of Hercules. Lycurgus, of the younger branch, established his fa- 
mous code of laws, the most odious and pernicious system ever devised 
by man, yet the theme of endless, and almost unqualified praise, from 
the days of Herodotus to our own time. 

Temperance in eating and drinking, and severity of manners, are 
poor apologies for virtue, when they are cultivated for purposes of 
lawless ambition. We must admire the health and hardihood that are 
the fruits of useful industry; but the labour of the Spartans was in the 
field of blood and battle, or in the painful exercise that prepared them 
to brave death for the lust of dominion. Unhappy captives reduced 
to wretched slavery, performed those necessary labours in the field, 
and in the household, which their Spartan lords despised. We 
all admit that intemperate luxury was banished from Sparta; so 
was every liberal art, and every liberal thought. Who can name a 
Spartan poet, philosopher, orator, historian, or artist? But we are told 
that Spartans loved their country ; that is a vulgar merit, common to 
all mankind. But how did they treat their neighbours ? Let the poor 
Messenians, and all the States of Greece give the reply. 

3228 is the vulgar era of the Olympic games. Their real origin ia 
concealed in the mist of antiquity. We know not the time of their 
commencement, nor at what particular periods they were modified, to 
embrace new objects. We do know that they were an institution 
formed in a barbarous age, and rude in its nature ; we know, also, that 



8 OUTLINE OP HISTORY. [lECT. I, 

the contagious example spread to every state, and almost every city of 
Greece. The effects of these games on the Grecian morals, manners, 
and characters, are worthy of philosophic attention. Intercourse, emu- 
lation, opportunity and success, were the fruits realized. Humanity 
laments the wild barbarity of some of the exercises, and the ridiculous 
folly of others ; but sense and reason accept the final good, and ac- 
quiesce in the shame from which no barbarous age was ever exempt. 
The Grecian games did not, like Spartan laws, entirely subject the 
soul to the body, but rather cultivated the powers of both. 

The precise age of Homer and Hesiod, is easily fixed by men who 
boldly resolve to decide every thing. Homer lived after the Trojan 
war, in 2820, perhaps three hundred years after, in 3120. He lived 
so long before the time of Herodotus, that neither the age in which he 
lived, nor the island or coast which gave him birth, could then he as- 
certained. Here common minds must rest, and be satisfied. We need 
not try to suppress our admiring wonder at the appearance of such a 
man, in such an age. Poetic inspiration would naturally flow from the 
ardour, enterprise, and commotion exhibited around; but the design of 
the poem, the perfection and purity of style, the first ever produced, 
yet a model for all succeeding ages, — the early period, between 3000 
and 3150, — all these considerations exercise the mind with prodigious 
astonishment. 

The successors of Solomon for this same two hundred and fifty 
years, with some illustrious exceptions, exhibited a sad picture of de- 
generacy, which the fidelity of the sacred narrative has painted for our 
admonition and instruction. The wisdom of Solomon preserved entire 
the monarchy which the valour of David had established. Rehoboam, 
the son of Solomon, provoked a rebellion which rent his kingdom. 
After this fatal mischief, the line of David was confined to the south- 
ern of the Jewish tribes; and this limited kingdom bore the name of 
Judah, the principal tribe, from which the royal line had sprung, and. 
the Messiah was to be derived. Israel, which was before the name of 
the whole kingdom, was from that time appropriated to the northern 
and eastern tribes that revolted. The kings of Israel took the lead in 
wicked and idolatrous practices ; but Judah was not far behind in 
adopting or imitating the most absurd and abominable customs of their 
idolatrous neighbours. To the north, the kings of Syria recovered 
and abused the independent power which David and Solomon kneAV 
how to curb, or crush. The nations conquered by David breathed 
continual sedition, and often set the kings of Judah and Israel at de- 
fiance. Behold the elements of perpetual discord, and wasting wars. 
Barbarians all — fierce, corrupt, hostile ; in nothing united but in vi- 
cious propensities, and lawless indulgence. Jezebel, a princess of 
Tyre, married Ahab, one of the kings of Israel, and inundated the land 
with her priests and gods. Her daughter, Athaliah, married Jeho- 
ram, king of Judah, and imported her mother's mischiefs into that 
kingdom. It was in vain that now and then a good king arose in 
Judah, (not one in Israel,) to cleanse the polluted altars, and purify the 
defiled temple. Headlong successors would urge on the destiny of a 
nation, eagerly rushing into ruin and captivity. The royal families of 
Israel were frequently swept off by a bold stroke of treason and usur- 



LECT. I ] OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 9 

pation ; five reigned of one family ; four of another ; of several dynas- 
ties, only three ; and besides these, several usurpers were succeeded 
by other usurpers. It was different in Judah, where the line of David 
continued unbroken till the destruction of the kingdom. 

Israel and Syria were finally desolated by the armies of Nineveh, 
and the captive people distributed into the eastern cities in 3283. This 
event is called the first captivity. The captivity of Judah, or second 
captivity, took place more than a century later. These events call for 
the consideration of the ancient kingdoms of Nineveh and Babylon, so 
celebrated in history, sacred and profane; so imperfectly known to 
those who wait for authoritj'^ and evidence ; so well understood by all 
who are fond of the marvellous. Sacred and profane history attest the 
existence of those ancient cities. We have direct authority for the de- 
struction of Nineveh by a king of Babylon, perhaps about the year 
3379. We know that Babylon long after existed, and gradually sunk 
into ruin. All the wonders that are related of both, before the year 
3250, are the mere creatures of wonder-searching brains. The Jew- 
ish annals are silent till 3250. Fiction is fluent 1.300 years earlier. 
If an immense monarchy all that time bordered on the Jewish, and 
overshadowed it, we derive not a word of it from the Jews themselves. 
Of the famed Semiramis, before the time of Abraham, we have already- 
spoken. Sardanapalus was 1200 later — about 3200. We certainly 
could not refuse to pity the cruel fate of that misguided monarch : but 
the last catastrophe is the only point in which his biographers can 
agree, except that Nineveh was his capital. Whether Babylon, or 
Media, or Persia, or Armenia, belonged to his domains, is matter of 
contradiction and doubt, in which every man must form his opinion 
without record or evidence to guide. The twelve hundred years from 
Semiramis to Sardanapalus, is the term and duration of that prodigy of 
fiction, called the First, or the Ancient Assyrian Empire. About 
3250, we enter upon the period of the Second Assyrian Empire, less 
interesting than the first, because more known and more real ; yet here 
again all is doubtful, except what we gain from the sacred writers, 
whose province only required them to relate the transactions that 
passed between their own people and the kings of Nineveh or A&syria. 
The two captivities, first of Israel, in 2383, second of Judah, in 3416, 
have been already mentioned. Tiglath-Pileser, and Shalmanazar, are 
the names of the two monarchs of Nineveh or Assyria, who began and 
completed the captivity of Syria and Israel, in 3283. The treasures of 
the holy temple were profanely lavished by wicked Ahaz. king of 
Judah, to purchase the assistance of Tiglath-Pileser against the kings 
of Israel and Syria, who had invaded Judah with immense armies, 
and reduced the kingdom to the brink of destruction. Ahaz had the 
satisfaction to see his enemies afflicted with greater calamities than 
they had so wantonly brought upon him. The Syrians, and all the 
tribes of Israel, except Ephraim and Manasseh, were carried to Nine- 
veh and other eastern cities. Hezekiah, son of Ahaz, king of Judah, 
did not imitate his father's weakness or impiety, in purchasing foreign 
assistance; but he saw the first captivity completed by the rtiin of Sa- 
maria, and the two remaining tribes of Israel. This was the age in 
which Isaiah lived and prophesied. 

3 



10 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [LECT. I. 

Before the second captivity, proud Nineveh was prostrate in ruin, 
and Babylon had become the seat of empire, as some say, in 3379: but 
the chronology cannot be ascertained within many years ; and the de- 
tails of this event can only be furnished by fabulists, whose liberal 
treasures are always at our service. Were Media and Persia subject 
to the kings of Nineveh ? Did they assist the king or governor of Ba- 
bylon in the enterprise against Nineveh ? All is conjecture ; all is con- 
tradiction. Evidence merely warrants our saying, that kings reigning 
at Babylon, reigned also over the same territories that were subject to 
the kings of Nineveh at its destruction. Then commenced the Babylo- 
nish, or Third Assyrian Empire. The first, or most ancient Assyrian 
empire, a prodigious fiction, lasted twelve hundred years, from Semi- 
ramis to Tiglath-Pileser, from 2000 to 3250. The second Assyrian 
empire, indifferently known, lasted little more than a century ; and the 
Third Assyrian Empire is the Babylonish Empire. Nabopolasser was 
the founder ; Nebuchadnezzar was his son, and the author of the second 
captivity. He began to reign 3400 ; he took Daniel two years before, 
acting then as the general of his father, Nabopolasser,. in the siege of 
Jerusalem. Ezekiel was taken eight years later than Daniel, 3406 ; 
Jerusalem, and the temple destroyed, and the people of Judah carried 
captive 3416. This completes the second captivity. Daniel and Eze- 
kiel, who were carried to Babylon, and Jeremiah, who was taken to 
Egypt, were the prophets of this day. Nebuchadnezzar also destroyed 
Tyre, after a siege of thirteen years, and then overran Egypt. This 
monarch is said to have enlarged and embellished Babylon. We 
know nothing of him except from Holy Writ ; of his successors we 
know still less. They seem to have been embroiled with the kings of 
Media; but no two historians can tell the same story of their wars. 
Cyrus, the Persian arose, long before foretold by Isaiah. His father 
was Cambyses ; whether king or governor of Persia, we know not. 
His mother was Mandane, daughter of Astyages, king of Media. Cy- 
axares, son and successor of Astyages, was, of course, the uncle of Cy- 
rus. These personages have been made the subjects of moral and pa- 
thetic tales, by Herodotus, Xenophon, &c., but they all contradict one 
another; none had the light of evidence, and we are reduced to be 
satisfied with the simple and certain truth, that Cyrus, the Persian, 
conquered immense territories, and at last took Babylon by stratagem, 
and founded the Persian empire. Whether Cyrus waged war against 
the Assyrian provinces in alliance with his grandfather and uncle, 
kings of Media, or whether he first conquered them, and afterwards 
Jed his forces against the Assyrians, must be decided by somebody who 
has a better opportunity to investigate the truth than Herodotus and 
Xenophon, who give these contradictory stories. It is pretty certain 
that Cyrus conquered Crcesus, king of LJ^dia, in 3456, and that he took 
Babylon in 3466. The kingdom of Lytiia then embraced nearly the 
whole of Asia Minor, and Crcesus, its king, fell a sacrifice to the re- 
sentment of Cyrus, for having entered into an alliance with the king 
of Babylon. The numerous and flourishing Greek cities on the coast 
of Asia Minor, of the iEolian, Ionian, and Dorian names, had been 
subjected to the kingdom of Lydia, and they now struggled in vain to 
escape the yoke of Cyrus. They submitted to the Persian king, and 



LECT. I.] O TJ T L 1 N E O F H I S T O R y . 11 

will soon be iound acting a consp cuous part in the grand transactions 
between Greece and Persia. 

Nineveh was the first seat of eastern despotism : its destruction trans- 
ferred the pre-eminence to Baby on. Cyrus reduced Babylon to a pio- 
vincial and dependent city, and Susa becomes and remains for two hun- 
dred years the capital of the Persian empire. 

The captive, Daniel, found favour with Cyrus, who permitted the 
Jews to return to their own country, and rebuild Jerusalem and the 
temple. Many Jews, particularly of the first captivity, chose to re- 
main in the eastern cities, where they long enjoyed distinguished privi- 
leges, and made a considerable proportion of eastern population. Those 
who returned to Jerusalem experienced various delays and difficulties 
in rebuilding their temple and walls. The Samaritans, an inveterate 
race, who had been transplanted into the tribes from the east, to repeo- 
ple the country after the first captivity, having embraced the Jewish 
religion, claimed to participate in the privileges of the temple, to the 
expense of which they had to contribute by the decree of Cyrus. Be- 
ing disdainfully rejected by the Jews as a spurious race, they carried 
their clamor and opposition to a degree oi frantic rage, which, for 
twenty years baffled and retarded the labours of the Jews; and in this 
they were countenanced by the decrees of Cambyses, son of Cyrus, and 
Smerdis, the usurper. At length Darius Hystaspes, third king of Per- 
sia, effectually exerted his power in behalf of the temple and city, and 
they arose with much of their former splendour and magnificence. 
From that time, they received continual additions and improvements, 
till their total destruction by Titus, the Roman emperor, six hundred 
years after, — seventy years after the birth of Christ. 

During the captivity, the common people among the Jews lost their 
own language, and spoke only that of the Chaldeans ; so that, from 
their restoration, the Hebrew was only cultivated and understood by 
the Rabbis. The Hebrew copy of the Bible was still read in the syn- 
agogues, but an interpreter was always employed to render every verse, 
as soon as read in Hebrew, into Chaldee. 

The line of favid enjoyed only titular honours, after the captivity, 
without real power. A prince of that line, with the High Priest, re- 
turned at the head of the Jews to Jerusalem; but the restored Jews 
were subject to the Persian empire; and whatever authority they were 
allowed to enjoy was engrossed by priests and rabbis ; the prince sunk 
into obscurity and insignificance. Ezra and Nehemiah were the eon- 
spicuous prophets of the second temple. After them, prophets and sa- 
cred historians cease their functions, and about the same time Hero- 
dotus, the first profane historian, begins to write. 

Cyrus had erected an immense monarchy, extending from India to 
the Grecian seas. His son and successor, Cambyses, a frantic despot, 
marched into Egypt, conquered the whole country, and added it to the 
Persian empire. He sacrificed immense armies, in trying to conquer 
the burning deserts of Lybia and Ethiopia : he threatened Carthage ; 
but while he breathed vengeance and fury equally against foreigners 
and his own unhappy subjects, a usurper, by the name of Smerdis, oc- 
cupied his throne at Susa, under the assumed character of his brother. 
Death arrested him as he was setting out to return to his capital 



12 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [lECT. II. 

and punish the usurper. After seven months, the imposture was de- 
tected, and Darius Hystaspes reigned the third lawful king of Persia, 
in 3483. Before 3500, he conquered Thrace, in Europe; and India, in 
the East. His celebrated wars with Greece, begin in 3500 precisely, 
and that is the point of time at which authentic history begins. 

The history of Egypt is known from the time it became a part of the 
Persian empire. Before that time, and after Solomon, we can ascertain 
but little, except a few expeditions into Israel, and the irruption of Ne- 
buchadnezzar into Egypt. Chronologers must fix the time of Sesos- 
tris within five hundred years before v^'e can follow him all over the 
world with his conquering armies. 

The affairs of Greece have been brought down to 3250, the era of 
the foundation of Rome, and of the second Assyrian empire. From 
3250 to 3500, colonization goes on, and the Grecian nations gradually 
assume a more calm and settled condition. Two ferocious wars, called 
first and second Messenian wars, subjected the Messenian state and 
nation to the Spartans. The result of these wars gave the Spartans a 
complete ascendency in the Peloponnesus. The third Messenian war 
lies much later. Argos was governed by an aristocracy. Corinth 
changed from monarchy to aristocracy, and from that again to mo- 
narchy, and from that again to aristocracy. We have seen the aboli- 
tion of monarchy at Athens, 2930, succeeded by hereditary archons. 
The archons became decennial, or for ten years, about 3250, and final- 
ly annual, about 3320. The aichon, Solon, is famous among the 
ancient lawgivers. He appears at Athens, about 3430, three hundred 
years later than Lycurgus, at Sparta. His laws were silly enough, 
but they did not, like those of Lycurgus, prefer the body to the soul; 
they left free scope to intellectual energy. He was one of the seven 
wise men. Their wisdom and their maxims have been the theme of 
praise. Pity that it was all folly. However, il answers for talk. In 
the face and eyes of Solon, Pisistratus, an artful demagogue, usurped 
sovereign power at Athens. The history of his sons connects with 
important events, not now to be considered. A succession of elegant 
Greek poets flourished in this age; Pythagoras, aiid others, called 
philosophers, appear. They had talents, but their philosophy was 
sucli as we should expect from the age. 



LECTURE II. 

A PRECEDING Lecture has hurried us over thirty-five centuries; 
from the creation to the year of the world 3500 ; — a long interval, pre- 
senting always a gloomy stillness, or savage scenes of wild commo- 
tion. Throughout, the picture is shaded with the darkness of primi- 
tive ignorance, or faintly illuminated by a few rays of scattered light. 
At the close of this dreary lapse, the change to us is instantaneous ; a 
memorable era commences ; we seem to pass suddenly from the shades 



LECT. II.] OUTLINE OF HISTORY. |13 

of night to meridian brightness. The arms of Cyrus had consolidiiied 
the East into one stupendous monarchy, in 3466. The frantic ambiton 
of his son, Cambyses ; the ignoble, but momentary reign of the usur jer, 
Smerdis, clouded, for awhile, the eastern aspect; but even Cambyses 
stretched the Persian sceptre over the rich vales of the Nile, and Ihe 
magnificent cities of Egypt. Darius soon succeeded ; Thrace aad 
India swelled the list of provinces, and poured their treasures into tke 
palaces of Susa. The ambition of that monarch clashed with the lib r- 
ties of Greece. Victorious before, baffled now, his name still gaias 
lustre or renown from the unfortunate encounter. 

The acquisition of Thrace had destroyed the natural barrier be- 
tween the Persian domains and the Grecian Slates, and planted tHe 
seeds of future discord. The memorable conflict was hastened on by 
the sullen submission, and at length the open revolt of the Greeks oi 
Asia Minor, assisted by their kindred race of Athens. In that city the 
spirit of liberty had recently triumphed over its tyrants, the sons of 
Pisistratus. A daring blow had despatched Hipparchus ; a general 
revolt drove Hippias, the other, into exile, to the court of Darius, who 
cherished the complaints of the banished monarch, and resolved to 
cloak his own ambition under the specious pretext of espousing the 
common cause of injured kings. The opposite passions of men kin- 
dled into a flame that spread over the face of the earth, and dissipated 
the gloom of ages. 

We have plunged Greece and Persia into a contest that will long en- 
dure. The era of its commencement is imposing, though less import- 
ant, immediately, in other parts of the world. The expulsion of the 
kings of Rome, was almost simultaneous with that of the Pisistratidae 
from Athens, about 3500. The downfall of a tyrant is an event alw ays 
viewed with interest by mankind, though commotion, instead of calm, 
generally succeeds, and some new adventurer converts the disorder to 
his own aggrandizement, and the unhappy people behold new chains 
forged, new snares laid, perhaps by the very idols who struck tile first 
blow, or led the attack against their former tyrants. In such cases, the 
secondtyrantisusually more dangerous than the former, since the same 
deceit and dissimulation which associated his name with the cause of 
freedom, may still be successfully practised to impose upon undiscern- 
ing minds, who continue to identify their hero Ai'ith the sacred cause 
which he has abandoned and betrayed. At Home, the magistracy 
passed from the king to the patricians, a jea/ous aristocracy, who 
dreaded equally a monarch and all plebeian encroachments. The an- 
nual election of consuls flattered the expectations of every senaior, and 
during his year the consul was invested with sufficient power to sup- 
press ordinary tumults in the city, and meet the common exigencies of 
war. When unusual dangers pressed, the temporary appointment of 
a dictator, with absolute power, served to restore order, and insure the 
public safety. The rights of the people were in some measure guard- 
ed by their own annual magistrates, called tribunes of the people, who 
bad power to arrest any public measure, though they could not pro- 
pose any thing. In process of time, the privileges of the people were 
enlarged ; but at no period was the Roman constitution well defined ; 
the contradictory pretensions of plebeians and patricians, of consuls 



y ' OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [lECT. II. 

atd tribunes, filled the city with perpetual tumult and disorder. No- 
thng, however, could ever check the Roman ardour for war and con- 
qvest ; enemies in the forum were friends in the field of battle ; the 
rrujesty of Rome filled every mind, swelled every haughty soul, and 
wirmed every imagination. In the eye of a Roman, conquest and do- 
minion were the peculiar prerogatives of his sacred city. In all ages, 
tc resist Roman arrogance was rash presumption. After the submis- 
sbn of a people, policy alone dictated whether the vanquished should 
siare the full privileges of citizens, or submit to cruel slavery. If this 
policy was often disguised under the specious names of generosity or 
justice, a fair scrutiny will reject the excuse or pretence. The Roman 
t;easury was not drained in early ages to reward the soldiers; but the 
"icense of plunder was unbounded ; exemptions and privileges increas- 
ed in proportion as the contributions were multiplied from vanquished 
erritories. Successful valour seized its own reward, and the pride of 
ronquest soothed and flattered every citizen, from the highest to the 
owest degree. 

For the two hundred and fifty years now before us, while we see 
3rreece in its meridian splendour, Rome is still confined to the wars 
ind conquests of Italy. For the next succeeding two hundred and fifty 
years, from 3750 to 4000, we shall see Rome striding over every sea, 
and embracing Greece, Asia, Egypt, and Africa, in its dominions. We 
now take our leave of Rome for two hundred and fifty years. 

We left Greece and Persia in the commencement of their celebrated 
struggle, 3500. The nature of the war laid the first scene in Asia 
Minor, where the Ionian Greeks, inadequately assisted by the distant 
Athenians, after a brave resistance of six years, were compelled to sub- 
mit again to their haughty and indignant masters. Darius Hystaspes, 
elated with former success, now resolved to carry his victorious arms 
over the ^gean sea, and subject all Greece to his imperial sway. The 
Athenians had given him cause of complaint, by assisting their revolt- 
ing biethren. Hippias, the exiled son of Pisistratus, urged every to- 
pic ; and lust of dominion closed the monarch's eyes to all considera- 
tions of justice or prudence. One blow from a mighty realm seemed 
enough to crush a little state ; but a fleet and army perished in Thrace, 
and on its coast, the one a victim to the tempests, and the other to sud- 
den surprise from a barbarian host. New preparations arrayed a for- 
midable host for a new invasion. Avoiding the stormy coasts, and 
fierce barbarians of Thrace, his fleet and transports deliberately tra- 
versed the iEgean sea and after subduing the islands that lay in the 
way, reached the coast of Attica. 110,000 Persians, poured forth into 
the plains of Marathon, — a name often pronounced with swelling 
pomposity by boys, pedants and politicians, — 10,000 Athenians, 
advantageously posted, and skilfully commanded, bravely withstood 
the Persian onset, broke the ranks, turned the wings, routed, pursued, 
and slaughtered. Flight favoured a few, who, in wild panic, began in 
better season, to seek the fleet ; but that refuge was soon cut off; the 
license of victory gave free career to the havoc of avenging slaughter, 
and the sounding name of Marathon, long served to rouse, rally, and 
urge on the Greeks to certain victory. 

The glorious battle of Marathon took place in 3515, ten years after 



LECT. II.] 



OUTLINE OF HISTORY 



15 



the suppression of the Ionian revoh by Darius; ten years before the 
entrance of Xerxes into Greece. Darius died, and Berodotus was 
born in the year 3520. This Darius was the third lawful king of Per- 
sia — Cyrus, Cambyses, Darius. From his death, ir 3520, eighty 
years more were occupied by the successive reigns of Xerses, Arta- 
xerxes, Darius Second, or Nothus — 20, 40, 20. Bebre his death, 
Darius Hystaspes had strained the nerves and sinews of his royal and 
imperial might to collect a force, and aim a blow that vould mock the 
hope of resistance, and efface the stigma of his former defeat. 

The revolt of Egypt, just before his death, delayttd and divided his 
noisy expedition. He left his son Xerxes to inheril his preparations, 
his embarrassments, and his resentments. The prudence of the son 
declined the contest with Greece, till his undiviJeJ strength had 
crushed the revolt in Egypt. New preparations poHponed the doubt- 
ful trial, till the fifth year of his reign, 3525. Theicea of trampling 
a little community of freemen to death, instead of ficing them, man- 
fully, in equal combat, was natural to the proud lori of Persia, stung 
with the fresh recollections of the field of Marathon, The numerical 
exaggerations of Greek historians have feasted the bvers of the mar- 
vellous in all succeeding ages. An immense, but indefinite multitude, 
was very conveniently expressed by round millions, when muster rolls 
were wanting, and all descriptive terms considered inadequate. The 
universal expressions of wonder, satisfactorily attest the prodigious 
numbers of men and ships that composed the expedition. Seven days 
and nights would pour a countless host into Europe over a spacious 
bridge of boats constructed across the Hellespont; aiid twelve hundred 
vessels, besides transports, would require and contaii a multitude. A 
train of women, slaves, cooks, comedians, courtezars, served to swell 
and encumber the ranks. The whole, perhaps, prcjvokes a strain of 
ridicule which has not been spared by adequate pen^; but it seems ra- 
tional to measure the follies of Xerxes, as well as of pther men, by the 
standard of truth and probability. We may even la|h his real follies 
without descending to represent the enraged monarcli in the idle atti- 
tude of lashing the waves of the Hellespont for dashing to pieces his 
bridge of boats. 

A minute historian would follow the fleet and army as they slowly 
moved along the coast ready to co-operate in case of altack. The bat- 
tle of Thermopylge, and simultaneous encounter of the Greek and Per- 
sian fleet — the rage and purple glory of three successive days, open a 
noble field for the inspiration of the muse, and the expansive declama- 
tion of history. But speed is our province ; a month for Xerxes is not 
a minute for us. If this haste would allow us to feed our amazement, 
and gaze at the deliberate victims of heroic ardour, we might, perhaps, 
catch some faint impression of the all-inspiring, all-appalling scene ex- 
hibited by the Spartan Leonidas, and his three hundred brave compa- 
nions. Ten thousand men had been conducted by the Spartan king 
to defend the pass. For three days, Xerxes witnessed wiih terror and 
dismay the fruitless slaughter of his men ; at last treason betrayed to a 
detachment of his army a secret pass, which led them into the rear of 
the Greeks. Any longer defence was hopeless ; but despair produced 
a voluntary and animating example : Leonidas, after dismissing all his 



16 OU T L I N E OF H I 8 T OR Y. [lECT, II. 

troops but three hundred chosen and willing victims, sold his life to 
encourage and save Greece. 

From the Hellespont to Thermopylae, Thrace, Macedonia, and 
Thessaly, submitted, to increase the enemy's ranks. After the passage 
of ThermopylcE, the exulting victor paraded through Phocis and Boeo- 
tia into Attica, the grave of his towering hopes, the scene of his deep- 
est humiliation. The vine and the vegetable withered under the tramp 
of brutal men; temples and sacred places yielded their treasures to 
impious and rapacious hands. 

Torches and firebrands kindled a devouring element, and consumed 
every city, tower, or dwelling. Xerxes calmly surveyed the scene of 
submission and desertion, regarding the contest as already finished. 
His fleet had piirsued that of Greece into the Saronic Gulf, and finally 
into the narrow strait of Salamis, a position which the Spartans wished 
to avoid, but wkiih the sagacity of Themistocles sought with artful 
care. From ari eminence, the king was witness of a scene that baf- 
fled all his fond expectations, and chased him trembling out of Greece. 
Grecian skill and valour prevailed over superior numbers, and a mere 
remnant of the Persian fleet prolonged by flight the day of their cer- 
tain destruction* After the glorious battle of Salamis, the decision by 
land was delayed about three months ; the battle of Platea crowned the 
triumphs of Greece: very few Persians escaped. On the same day, 
the remnant of the fleet that escaped from Salamis, was suddenly at- 
tacked by the Athenian Xantippus, and utterly ruined. 

Thus, in the compass of less than four months, the millions that fol- 
lowed Xerxes intc Europe, perished ignobly in the battles of Thermo- 
pylae, Artiraisium Salamis, Platea, and Mycale ; and with them ex- 
pired every futun hope, or even thought, of conquering Greece. An 
edifying lesson tograsping and rapacious monarchs, if monarchs were 
composed of materials upon which the lessons of experience could pro- 
duce any impresaon. From Xerxes to Buonaparte, the lust of power 
that has sought tc domineer over all mankind, has experienced almost 
one uniform result of disappointment and disgrace. But that is 
preaching. 

The island of Sicily had been colonized from Greece ; and Syracuse, 
its capital, was a Corinthian colony. Xerxes, knowing that the Greeks 
of Sicily would be inclined to send aid to their brethren in Greece, en- 
tered into an alliance with the Carthaginians, by which they engaged 
to pass over into Sicily with three hundred thousand, while he invaded 
Greece with his millions. The Carthaginians had long kept a wish- 
ful eye turned on that fertile and important island, but they fared no 
better than Xerxes. In one moment of surprise they were all cut off' 
by an artful stratagem of Gelon, the first tyrant, or king of Syracuse. 

The principal actors in the battle of Marathon, 3515, were Miltia- 
des, Aristides, and Themistocles. Miltiades died in prison the next 
year, leaving a son, the illustrious Cimon, to perpetuate the honours of 
his family. Aristides and Themistocles were the chief fountains of 
wisdom and counsel, and the souls of action during the invasion of 
Xerxes. Aristides returned from banishment to participate in the 
glory and danger of his rivaL Themistocles experienced the caprice 
and ingratitude of his countrymen ten years after, and took refuge with 



S.ECT. II.] OUTLINE OP HISTORY. 17 

the king- of Persia. Fickleness and ingratitude formed a striking trait 
in the licentious democracy of Athens. Brilliant talents and patriotic 
services invariably exposed eminent Athenians to odium, banishment, 
or death. 

Mutual jealousy rankled in the breasts of the Spartans and Athe- 
nians. The absence of the Spartans from the field of Marathon, was 
excused by a religious scruple, that delayed the march of their army- 
till the horn of the moon was filled to a requisite measure. Valour 
and fortune saved the state, and the Athenians engrossed the honour. 
The Spartans were promptly in the field in opposition to Xerxes. At 
Thermopylas. the glory was theirs; and in every trying scene of the 
Avar, their valiant co-operation was essential and adequate. But they 
uniformly persisted in arrogating the chief command by land and sea, 
when it was evident to all mankind that the salvation of the state de- 
pended on the superior abilities of the Athenian commanders; and 
they even seemed resolved to abandon a cause which involved their 
own political existence, sooner than relinquish a vain point of honour. 
The Athenian generals yielded to the vain punctilio, and yet posterity 
has awarded to Themistocles and Aristides the honours due to the con- 
summate art and skill which they displayed. We shall see this spirit 
of jealousy rise into a flame that will consume the liberties of Greece. 

After the defeat of the Persians, a misunderstanding arose, very lit- 
tle to the honour of Sparta. That haughty people interposed to pre- 
vent the Athenians from rebuilding their citadel and walls, recently de- 
molished by the Persians, alleging that it was dangerous for such, 
works to fall into the enemy's hands, in case of a more successful inva- 
sion. Protected themselves from foreign invasion, by their peninsular 
situation, they showed a jealous and ungenerous indifference to the 
safety of their most exposed neighbours. By artful delays, and pro- 
tracted embassies, Themistocles caused the walls and citadel to rise, be- 
fore the Spartans could effectually oppose the progress of the work. 
Notwithstanding this early and continued jealousy, a variety of cir- 
cumstances will delay the fatal conflict about fifty years; a period 
which we now proceed to review in a brief outline. 

The facts to be related, develop the causes which raised Athens to 
a decided and dangerous ascendency in Greece, and provoked that de- 
solating war which proved so fatal to nil the states, and more imme- 
diately disastrous to Athens herself The victory of Marathon, and 
the conspicuous services of Aristides and Themistocles in the late bat- 
tles, imparted to Athens a new lustre, and gave her a more imposing 
attitude among the states of Greece than she ever assumed before. The 
character of Cimon, and his conduct at the head of the fleet, gained for 
his country the homage or alliance of all the coasts and islands of the 
^gean sea. 

No sooner were the Persian armies chased out of Greece, and de- 
stroyed, than the Athenians resumed their original intention of setting 
at liberty the Greek colonies of Thrace and Asia Minor, who detested 
the Persian yoke, and implored the aid of their lictorious brethren. 
The Spartan fleet united with that of Athens, and the Spartan Pausa- 
nias, still arrogated to himself the chief command, notwithstanding the 

3 



18 O U T L 1 N E O F H I S T O R Y . [lECT. II. 

superiority of the Athenians. His haughty and disdainful deportment, 
and at length his treasonable correspondence with the king of Persia, 
to whom he was pledged to betray that freedom for which he had late- 
ly fought, alienated t!ie minds of all the allies, and actually transferred 
the command of the fleet to Aristides and Cimon, the Athenian gene- 
rals. From that time, the great Cimon prosecuted the patriotic work 
of deliverance, and enjoyed an almost uninterrupted career of glory for 
thirty years, — from about 3-525 to 35.55. He flew from one scene of 
victory to another; delivered the cities of Thrace, of the Hellespont, 
and of Asia Minor, from the despotism of the great king, and brought 
them all into a close and honourable alliance with Athens. On two 
occasions, first in 3535, again in 3555, the year of his death, he defeat- 
ed a Persian fleet of superior numbers, and instantly rushed upon the 
land, and attacked and routed a superior, army the same day. Ci- 
mon did not derive the lustre of his name solely from his warlike 
achievements. His popular manners, and the generous use he made 
of the riches acquired by the plunder of the enemy, endeared him to 
all his fellow-citizens, who saw with gratitude and delight his private 
walks and splendid gardens thrown open for public amusement, and 
his plentiful table spread for the use of the indigent. He was once 
banished for a short time, by the powerful influince of his rival Peri- 
cles ; but Pericles himself was the first to propose his recall; and this 
great and noble character died in a blaze of glory, adorned with recent 
laurels, after having, by a long career of unexampled success, extended 
the influence and alliance of Athens over an immense extent of sea- 
coast, that before groaned under a distant despot. 

Pericles was the son of Xantippus, who achieved the victory of Myc- 
ale, 3525. The mother of Pericles was also of the most illustrious 
lineage, and his early education and promise were equal to his other 
pretensions. He first began to figure at Athens about 3535, when 
both Aristides and Themistocles had disappeared fiom the stage of 
action. He was the rival of Cimon in fame and in power; but he 
survived his rival twenty years, and enjoyed unbounded sway at 
Athens, in spite of Thucydides, who took the place of Cimon. If 
there was no particular department of public or private life in which 
Pericles excelled all other men, so there have been few men supe- 
rior to him in any respect whatever. A consummate statesman, a 
tiiundering orator, a persuasive and eloquent advocate, a citizen of the 
most obliging condescension and address; as a commander, deliberate 
in council, prompt and successful in execution; a man of exquisite 
taste, d<;votedly fond of the elegant arts, which flourished in his age 
more thai in any other period of Grecian history. Statues, edifices, 
and pictures were multiplied and employed to adorn every part of 
the noble city. 

Thepopular affability and address of Pericles, his eloquence, taste, li- 
berality, and profound sagacity, would now command our unraingled ad- 
miration, had they not then been too much employed as the engines of 
an inordinate ambhion. Almost without regular appointment, Peri- 
cles engrossed for himself the government of Athens, and gain-r^d for 
Athens the government of all Greece. His wonderful talents com- 



LECT. II.] OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 19 

rnanded deference ; his compliance, caresses ; and general indulgence 
to the people, soothed their minds, and secured their suffrages. This 
eminent statesman has been severely censured, for fanning the flame of 
discord between Athens and Sparta, and precipitating them into a fatal 
war, at a time when his influence was capable of moderating and com- 
posing the jealous irritation of the parties. 

The remote and immediate causes of the famous Peloponnesian 
war have been accurately ti-aced, and stated by the historians of that 
age. The character and institutions of the Spartans seemed to insure 
their superiority over the other states of the Peloponnesus; and the 
jealous hatred of those states was the natural consequence of their forced 
submission. The Athenians extended their milder influence over the 
coasts and islands of the iEgean, by the generous enterprise of Cimon, 
and the profound policy of Pericles. This refined system was less of- 
fensive than the morose despotism, of Sparta ; and yet the Athenian al- 
lies could not fail to discover that the arts of Pericles would ultimately 
leave them no more than the shadow of freedom. The intrigues of 
each party careful]^'- infused the venom of jealousy into the suspicious 
minds of the allies and subjects of the other; and the symptoms of fu- 
ture war were manifested or suppressed during fifty years, as the caprice 
of men, and the accidental tide of fortune occasionally prompted. The 
pacific offices of Cimon, several times suspended or healed an open 
rupture. The contrary bias of Pericles opposed the pacific policy; 
and as the evil passions of men are more easily aroused than appeased, 
Pericles oftener prevailed than Cimon, who made his appeal to the 
calm sense and reason of his countrymen. On one occasion, Cimon 
was banished for having persuaded the Athenians to send him at the 
head of some forces, whose assistance had been implored by the Spar- 
tans, assailed by their slaves amidst the ruins of an earthquake, which 
convulsed their city, and precipitated the impending rocks of Taygeta 
into its streets. The minds of men Avere soured by real or supposed 
provocations ; the busy embassies that professed to negotiate peace, 
only entangled the parties in new difficulties : indeed, all foresaw the 
certainty of a struggle; and years of seeming negotiation, were actual 
delays for preparation, for gaining allies by intrigue, and for setting a 
keen edge to resentment. For thirty years after the expedition of 
Xerxes, Cimon was gaining new allies for Athens, bjr delivering new 
islands and new cities from the Persian yoke. In 3ri55, the last vic- 
tory of Cimon compelled Artaxerxes to submit to the terms dictated by 
the Grecians; and a peace was concluded. If the policy of Pericles 
could have brought Athens and Sparta to an immediate trial of strength, 
the gratitude of the Athenian allies for recent deliverance, would have 
insured their ardour and fidelity in the struggle But the experience 
of twenty years had developed the ambitious views of their protectors, 
and disclosed their own subservient condition : fidelity faltered, 
jealousy was awakened, and resentment kindled. The stales conti- 
guous to Sparta, and most exposed to its odious encroachments, espous- 
ed the cause of Athens ; and those bordering on Attica joined Sparta 
for similar reasons. The inferior states, which had no hopes of domi- 
nion, would have been satisfied with independence. Athens and Sparta 
could brook no independence but their own, and both lusted for domi- 



20 OUTLINE OF HISTORV. [lECT.1I* 

«ion. The result of their silly contest will display the madness of 
such ambition ; but a similar result in every instance, from that time 
to this, has not yet convinced or instructed minds that court misery 
tinder the guise of glory and ambition. It is the same stupid delusion 
■vvhich be addles the brains of murderers, robbers, thieves, perjurers, and 
traitors, and abandons them to the fatal conviction that they are exempt 
from the exposure, infamy, condemnation, remorse, and horror, that 
have inevitably overtaken all others involved in similar guilt. It is 
the same pitiful delusion that makes men strive and strut out of the 
sphere for which they were designed ; waste their substance, and 
plunge into debt to be respectable, and court the company of those who 
despise them. The folly is the same in all ; it is the folly of expecting 
the irreversible decrees of heaven to be reversed in our behalf alone. 

Ten years after the peace with Persia, a war broke out between Co* 
tinth, and Corcyra, her colony. The interval had been devoted to 
secret intrigue and preparation; the war unveiled at once all the bit- 
ter passions that policy or dissemblance had concealed. The Corcy- 
reans appealed to the Athenians for aid ; and all the interest and elo- 
quence of Pericles were exerted to procure a decree favourable to their 
application. The deputies from Corinth and Sparta opposed the inter- 
ference of Athens, but the voice of Pericles prevailed, and aid was sent 
to Corcyra. A series of strange vicissitudes attended the operations of 
this war. Two factions of Corcyra alternately prevailing, butchered 
and destroyed each other with every circumstance of atrocious perfidy 
and savage cruelty. The Spartans were not indifferent spectators of 
events that might result in bringing the Ionian islands into a close al- 
liance with Athens, whose power and ambition already threatened the 
liberties of Greece. Embassy after embassy only served to disclose the 
jealousy of the parties, and sharpen their resentment. The pride of 
Athens was as pernicious as the ferocity of Sparta. Gratuitous pro- 
Vocatiotis were added to wanton mischief, and a convulsive struggle 
was hurried on by the perverseness of individuals, abetted by the licen- 
tious humours of a turbulent democracy'. The keen eye of a discern- 
ing statesman might, perhaps, have discovered the seeds of inevitable 
war, and the present advantages, which delay might jeorpardize. The 
ambition of Pericles has been arraigned; but his motives are inscruta- 
ble to us at this time. Perhaps he calmly and honestly surveyed the 
restless allies of his country, equally ready to revolt, or engage in any 
expedition that was set on foot. At anv rate, while he lived, he stood 
erect in war, and magnanimous in counsel, stemming the tempest whea 
he could no longer direct it. The rage of plague and pestilence was 
not obvious to human foresight, nor one of the chances Avhich a states- 
man of Greece was bound to estimate. From Egypt, through Asia, the 
fatal infection made its circuit to Athens and Attica. The Spartans 
had invaded and laid waste ; and the Athenian navy recalled them to 
the defence of their own coasts and seaports : but the arm of valour 
could not resist this new enemy ; it withered and perished. Medical 
skill was equally unavailing. Instant distraction and despair seized 
the victim, and torment finished the patient before the physician arriv- 
ed. Pericles, with horror, saAV his children seized and hurried into 
the common grave. His public and private griefs could not unman his' 



LECT. II.] OUTLINE OP HISTORY. 21 

great soul ; but disease and death preyed upon his mortal powers, and 
he sunk down in the midst of his country's affliction. This melan- 
choly tragedy closes the second year of the ivar. 

What a crowd of reflections attend ugin pursuing the sad narrative 
through the A^icissiludes of twenty-seveii yeal's, to the close of the grand 
drama. Lately, Greece united defied and humbled the giant of east- 
ern despotism. The sons of freedom stood amazed at their own achieve- 
ments ; their adventurous spirits sought distant scenes of danger and 
glory. Assailed on his own coasts, menaced or surprised every mo- 
ment at some new point of attack, the Persian trembled on his remote 
throne of Susa, and sought peace by hfirable submission. The first calm 
of peace displays the genius of man, (Je-foted to every elegant art. The 
mind tries to dwell on the pleasing picture; but impending clouds ob- 
scure the view, and exhibit the elenents of future tempests and final 
ruin. Greece was fatally impelled to its own destruction. 

The Peloponnesian war commerced 3573, two years before the 
death of Pericles. For six successive campaigns, the Spartans uni- 
ibrnily invaded Attica, laying waste the country, insulting the capital, 
seeking the combat. Unequal to their enemies in the field, the Athe- 
nians sallied out with their superior fleet, and sailing round the Pelo- 
ponnesus, spread terror and desolation on the whole coast. Even dur- 
iiig the plague at Athens, the Spartans did not insult the miseries of 
their antagonists with impunity. Mutual waste and distress was the 
only result of these six campaigns. From that time, the scene of the 
war was shifted to difTerent parts of Greece. A little island on the 
west of the Peloponnesus became the theatre of a most obstinate and 
bloody conflict, which, after many turns of fortune, terminated in favour 
of the Athenians, and reduced th3 Spartans to sue for peace. Elated 
with this success, the Athenians declined all reasonable terms; the 
negotiation ended, and the seat of war was removed to Thrace, where 
the Athenians possessed a numbel of large and flourishing cities. Bras- 
idas, the brave Spartan, gained a decisive victory over the boastful 
Cleon ; both fell in the action, and this event was improved by the 
friends of peace to hush up the war. A peace for fifty years was soon 
concluded, called the peace of Nicias; on account of the decided inter- 
est and influence of Nicias, the Athenian, in the adjustment. The 
peace of Nicias took place in the tenth year of the war, 3583. By this 
treat}'-, the fury of the war was suspended about six years ; but the 
animosity of the parties never subsided in the least : infractions of the 
treaty were mutually alleged, and vehemently urged ; partial hostili- 
ties were carried on by the minor parties, and so little did the times 
wear the aspect of peace, that the doubtful respite is actually reckoned 
as a part of the famous twenty-seven years; beginning 2573, and end- 
ing 3600. The headstrong passions of the famous Alcibiades, are 
justly accused of replunging the states into the horrors of active war, 
3589, six years after the peace of Nicias. This extraordinary young 
man was a spoiled child; he was the idol of the mob, and eclipsed 
every rival in every debauch ; and being cast in beauty's perfect mould, 
he was every thing that the most languishing damsel of modern times 
could wish to see depicted in a romance. We can wish a licentious 
rabble no greater punishment, than to be the sport of such a leader. 



22 OUTf,lNE OF HISTORY. [lECT. II. 

Even if we excuse his youthful sallies, ihe pupil of Socrates can find no 
honest apologist for the dtibasing follies and corrupt practices of riper 
years. Commotion was the only element in which such a man could 
live ; and he saw with painful anxiety the misunderstanding of Greece 
about to be rt^conciled by anew treaty of peace. The Spartan ambas- 
sadors arrived at Athens wilh full poAvers to grant advantageous terms. 
With profound dissimulation, A.lcibiades, assuming the language of 
impartial frankness, advised then not to increase the airogance of the 
Athenians by declaring their full powers. Easy dupes to this base 
artifice, the ambassadors witnessed with shame and confusion, the in- 
dignation of the Athenian assembly, inflamed by Alcibiades himself, 
who exclaimed with vehemence against the Spartan state, and urged 
an immediate declaration of war. Unable to expose the perfidy of Al- 
cibiades, without disclosing their own credulity, the ambassadors with- 
drew in silence, to render an account of their fruitless mission at Spar- 
ta. Still, the cause of peace found so many able advocates, that no se- 
rious war would have ensued, had aot Alcibiades seized a favourable 
occasion to persuade the populace, x^ho decided all questions in the as- 
semblies, to engage in a distant enterprise, which he well knew would 
at once involve all Greece in the flame of war. 

The kindred (creeks of Sicily oftei[ appealed to their brethren of the 
mother country, to aid them in diatress, or redress their grievances. 
They sometimes solicited succour against the Carthaginians, their in- 
veterate persecutors ; at other tirries, implored assistance against a do- 
mestic tyrant. In this instance, one city prayed to be delivered from 
the vexatious yoke of another, l^heeloquence of the great orator Gor- 
gias, was employed by his citizens, tie Leontines, to plead their cause 
against Syracuse, in the Athenian assembly. The business was 
weighty; the eloquence was manly and pathetic. Nicias, and the 
other friends of peace saw with trembling anxiety the passions of the 
multitude inflamed ; but the cool admonitions of aged and considerate 
men, were spurned as the counsels of timid and indolent minds. The 
impetuous voice of a young man, the darling of a licentious faction, ris- 
ing up, with grace and dignity ia his mien, and rolling a torrent on 
his tongue, communicated an impulse that hurried the people on be- 
yond the control of council and wifsdom. 

The disastrous expedition against Sicily fills a little more than two 
years. The whole interval is darkened wilh stormy vicissitudes, and 
closed with the most frightful catastrophe. Alcibiades, who urged the 
enterprise, and Nicias, who opposed it, were associated in command. 
The embarkation was an imposing spectacle. The arrival in Sicily 
was succeeded by a well-directed blow against a small city. The pro- 
mise of success seemed fair, when messengers arrived from Athens, 
commissioned to recall and arrest Alcibiades on a charge of having 
mutilated the statues of the tutelar Minerva, in a midnight frolic, before 
his departure. His demand of a trial before he embarked had been re- 
fused by the same capricious mob that now so soon demanded his re- 
turn and condemnation. On his way home he escaped from his keep- 
ers, and flew to Sparta, where his former antipathy was forgotten, in 
consideration of his fresh resentment, and hostile measures against his 
own country. In the apprehension of a modern, the mutilation of a 



LECT II.] 



OUTLINE OF IIISTbRY. 



23 



statue, even of Minerva, would be less crimilia than dead!)' hostility to 
one's own country. In that age the distinction was not so clear. 

The lovers of tragedy may enjoy an ample repast in any minute his- 
tory of the siege of Syracuse, besieged by i|ie Athenians, and assisted 
by the Corinthians and Spartans. The vicissitudes of the war were 
sudden and freq^uent. The party that triumphs in success, and exults 
in plenty to-day, to-morrow sinks into despair and famine. The last 
sudden reverse was fatal to Nicias and his whole army ; though the 
recent arrival of Demosthenes with a reinforcement, had seemed only 
the day before to insure the Athenians a certain triumph, and actually 
struck the besieged with panic terror, llhe execution of the two Athe- 
nian generals, and the destruction of the whole army, disgraced the 
character of Syracuse, and threw Athens into consternation. The ge- 
neral panic was soon succeeded by an acti/ity and enterprise suited to 
the occasion. The late misfortune was a sgnal of revolt to some of the 
discontented allies, who seized the favourable juncture to regain their 
independence, or rather to throw themselvss into the more cruel arms 
of the Spartans. As they were sooiji reduced to submission, their re- 
volt onljT^ drew upon them a more rigorons servitude. About twenty- 
years of the war were now accomplished; the remaining seven years 
carry us to a new scene of action, and introduce new parties. Darius the 
Second, or Nothus, filled the throne of Persia from 3580 to 3600. His 
father, Artaxerxes Longimanus, had submitted to a humiliating peace, 
imposed by Cimon, in 3555. Darius, the son, lost Egypt by revolt, 
about the middle of his reign, 3590; and that country remained inde- 
pendent upwards of sixty years. The bloody contest between Athens 
and Sparta, engaged the attention of the Persian monarch, who espous- 
ed the cause of Sparta, and contribuied irj no small degree to the calami- 
ties of Athens. The future operations wpre transferred to the Mgean sea, 
and its numerous islands, the allies! of j^thens. History here announces 
the Spartan Lysander, an odious namei or glorious, if a cold, bloody ca- 
reer can make it so. Alcibiades conies upon the stage again. He escaped 
now from the jealous rage of the Spartan king, who took no fancy to 
the seducer of his queen, and disovfned her son. The versatile genius 
of Alcibiades had submitted to thfc soup and meagre diet imposed by 
the laws of Lycurgus; but history testifies that revenge was his mo- 
tive, and that he found some conlpensation for compliance, with rude 
abstinence, in the favour of the Spartan queen. We shall soon see 
him arrayed again on the side of jiis country. 

Darius Nothus displayed the ancient grudge of his family against 
the Athenians, by his steady adherence to the Spartan interest; but his 
palace of Susa was at an immense distance from the theatre of opera- 
tions, which were necessarily left much to the discretion of his gover- 
nors or satraps in Asia Minor. A jealous policy divided this appoint- 
ment between two governors of equal authority, who might assist, op- 
pose, or watch each other, as their respective instructions or inclina- 
tions directed. Alcibiades, after his flight from Sparta, took refuge at 
Sardis, the residence of the sa:rap of Lydia. 

His resentment against his country was now cooled, or abated, by a 
more recent injury from the enemy'whom his advice had eflectually 
served for several years. His change of sentiment and purposes, how- 



24 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [lBCT. II. 

ever, must luvk in his own bosom, till it could be revealed with safety 
and advantaare. The claracter of the man was adapted to the delicacy 
of the transaction. His rash, precipitate manner, veiled from conimon 
penetration the duplicity and versatility of his nature. The circum- 
stances of the day imposed the deepest dissimulation; and, as the ex- 
ercise of that quality cost him nothing, the crafty Athenian still pro- 
fessed to consult the interest of Sparta. Yet, in the eye of a Persian 
satrap, it was no offence to consider the welfare of the Persian mo- 
narch, and some subtle insiniiations were well received. The policy of 
humbling Athens, was praisec as sound, since she had inflicted the se- 
verest blows; but the total Tuin of Athens was incompatible with the 
peace and safety of the world, since then the whole power of Greece 
would concentrate at Sparta, and the throne of Asia might soon be 
shaken by the combination, of powers, that a just foresight would ba- 
lance and divide. The wisjloni of these suggestions, dimly apprehend- 
ed by Darius and his miiiis|ers, was afterwards realized too late by his 
successors, who will learn tj) tremble at the name of Sparta, and finally, 
lie prostrate at the feet of a Vlacedonian, whose dominion over Greece 
was supinely witnessed by tVe co.irt of Susa. The success of Alcibi- 
ades was sufficient for his o\^'n fanne, and competent to save his coun- 
trymen from every thing but their blind infatuation, which nothing 
could cure, as the event will manifest. 

A decisive blow had been rneditated by the speedy co-operation of a 
newly-raised Persian fleet with that of Sparta, then stationed in the 
JEgean. The inaction of thit fleet would expose the Spartans, confi- 
dent of its aid, to sudden surprise, and disconcert all their deep-laid 
plans. The negotiation was perplexed with difficulties. The satrap 
balanced with timid scruples ; his head was at the mercy of a despot, 
whose instructions w^ere ambiguous ; his motions were watched by the 
eagle eye of a rival governor; '.he Spartans pressed his hearty co-ope- 
ration, and partly penetrated his secret intentions. Alcibiades had a 
wily game to play; first, to enlist tie Persian, and preserve him in a 
steady purpose of mind; next, to apprize and consult his countrymen 
without hazarding too free a publicity ; then to reconcile his exaspe- 
rated countrymen to him, regain tl.eir confidence, and reap a suitable 
harvest of honour and advantage from the conclusion of the whole 
transaction. Prejudice, patriotism, mystery, all seemed to combine to 
baffle the negotiation. No man precisely understood what he advo- 
cated, or what he opposed. The armies were abroad ; one thing 
might be resolved in the camp, another in the city ; confusion pervad- 
ed both. One of the conditions oa which the state could command 
the services of the exile, was a revolution in government which de- 
prived the people of their tumultuarj'- power in the assemblies, and con- 
fided all authority to the aristocracy of four hundred. 

Finally, every demand was literally complied with, and Alcibiades 
was received with transports of joy at the head of the forces. The 
Persian fleet lay inactive, and abandoned the Spartans to their fate. The 
Athenians soon exulted in their repeated victories. The Spartans 
either fled, or suffered inevitable defeat iji every encounter. The Athe- 
nian fleet from the .^gean passed into tiie Hellespont, where the same 
victorious career distinguished the new admiral. The enemies were 



LECT. Il] OUTLINE OP HISTORY. 25 

were routed, and the cities recovered. These honourable deeds cover- 
ed the hero with a transient glory, which reconciled his mind to revi- 
sit his native city. His appearance at Athens was hailed by the 
noisy acclamations of a gazing, shouting, and Avhimsical multitude. 
The government, which had been changed to aristocracy by his re- 
quest, was now again remodelled, on account of the excesses and usur- 
pations of the new administration; but the aristocratic features were 
still retained, and the same abuses were practised. At length, having 
enjoyed the popular homage due to his late exploits, he set out to win new 
laurels in the same field. The Spartans had collected new forces, but 
prudently avoided the contest which Alcibiades eagerly sought. One 
unhappy measure plunged him again into adversity, and hastened his 
country's ruin. Confident of the friendship of the Persian satrap, he 
ventured to visit him at Sardis, in hopes of pecuniary assistance. The 
governor labouring under the displeasure of his master for the aid al- 
ready lent, threw his imprudent visiter into prison, from which he with 
difficulty escaped, and returned to his fleet. To crown the miseries 
of his life, that fleet having engaged the enemy during his absence, 
contrary to his express orders, had been defeated and shattered. His 
endeavours to bring on a new engagement were fruitless; murmurs 
arose ; his recent services were forgotten in a moment ; the outcry was 
irresistible; he was again driven into banishment for the slightest 
fault of his guilty life, if his absence on such an occasion could be 
esteemed a fault. 

Ten new commanders were now appointed, and they were not long 
without an opportunity of revenging the late defeat. Off' the isles of the 
Arginusae, they gained a complete victory over the Spartans. But a 
sudden tempest defied all their endeavours to snatch their dead and dy- 
ing companions from the waves, and perform the last pious offices. As 
the tempest could not be called to any account, an enraged and sottish 
multitude made the unhappy generals suffer the forfeit of their head* 
for what human power could not prevent ; yet their heads were the 
last resource of a falling and ill-fated city, Socrates was left. But 
surely his sober lectures had been as well addressed to the raging tem- 
pest that swelled the sea, as to a brutal populace, that stifled his sooth- 
ing expostulations with their savage and tumultuous outcries. It re- 
quires an effort of patience to forbear exclaiming in this place, Let a 
speedy and vindictive judgment overtake this wrath-provoking people. 
Reflection softens and sobers our indignation. Their folly accelerated 
their fate, and a just pity for their ignorance, would even crave for 
them the indulgence of a milder doom. 

We may venture to assert that the spirit of Athens was broken, and 
its strength nearly, exhausted, since a single defeat decided the contest. 
The cool and cunning Lysander declined the repeated challenges of 
the Athenian fleet cruising in the Hellespont, but seized the first care- 
less moment of his taunting adversaries, surprised them in disorder, 
routed, and dispersed them. Conon, the Athenian commander, afraid 
or ashamed to seek shelter at home, took refuge in the island of Cy- 
prus, where he remained ten years, till he found a glorious opportu- 
tiity to efface the stigma of this defeat, and supply the means of re- 

4 



26 O U T L I 1\' E O F H I S T O R Y . [lECT. III. 

building those walls, whose ruin were occasioned, or at least hastened, 
by his imprudence. 

Passing over intermediate transactions of inferior note, we follow the 
victorious Lysander at once to the port and walls of Athens. The at- 
tack was brisk and incessant ; the defence Avas fierce and desperate. 
Famine soon added to the miseries of the besieged ; the surrender of 
the city was delayed about three months, when perfidy within aided 
the valour of the assailants. The ports and the walls were destroyed 
by the rage and jealousy of the conquerors ; the citadel was preserved 
to shelter a Spartan garrison from the fury of the people they were left 
to oppress and harass. Thirty Athenian citizens, devoted to the inter- 
ests of Sparta, were appointed to lord it over the city, to deride its 
groans, and aggravate its miseries. We shall see these Thirty Ty- 
rants hurled from their guilty eminence: but the narrative lies beyond 
the limits of this Lecture, which closes Avith the taking of Sparta, 
in 3600. 

The Greek philosophers that appeared in succession for the two 
centuries before this great event, have been overrated individually ; 
but their progressive excellence is a subject of pleasing inquiry. They 
all possessed acuteness of thought, and a singular felicity and fluency 
of language. Their temperance and activity invigorated their powers 
both of mind and body. But their exercises, both mental and gymnas- 
tic, were often, or rather generally, frivolous. Their habit of travel- 
ling through Asia, Egypt, the islands, and states of Greece, increased 
their stock of intelligence, as well as their natural acuteness ; but it 
also filled their minds with new absurdities. Thales, Pythagoras, 
Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Archelaus, and Socrates, 
flourished in this period. Plato, comes next, and then Aristotle; yet 
philosophy was in its infancy, while poetry, oratory, sculpture, and 
architecture, rose to great perfection. The drama also was zealously 
and successfully cultivated : ^schylus, Euripides, Sophocles, courted 
the tragic muse, while the comic Aristophanes lashed their faults, 
and ridiculed their rival pretensions 



LECTURE III. 

If a true lover of romance should be compelled to forego fiction, 
and accept facts, there are some periods of history that would almost 
reconcile him to the odious exchange. We might, perhaps, hazard 
an opinion that some genuine narratives, suitably decorated with the 
graces of style, would assume so much an air of fable as to impose up- 
on the most exquisite connoisseurs. The events of the century review- 
ed in the preceding lecture, are calculated to engage the mind, and 
excite an ardent curiosity to learn the sequel. The pursuit answers 
the fullest expectations that romantic dreams could inspire — intrepid 
enterprize, heroic deeds, frightful perils, lamentable sufl^erings, shock- 
ing crimes, cruel deaths, sudden escapes, marvellous deliverances, love, 
pity, malice, poison, all the deformities, and all the perfections that 
mingle in the brilliant fancies and deep conceits of ^modern writers of 
fiction. 



LECT lil.] OUTLINE OF HISTORY, 27 

A crowd of itnportaat transactions distinguish the very opening of 
this eventful century. The deliverance of Athens; the usurpation of 
Dionysius the Elder, at Syracuse, and his wars with the Carthagi- 
nians ; the death of Darius Nothus, and accession of his son, Arta- 
xerxes Mnemon ; the expfedition of Cyrus the Younger against his 
brother Artaxerxes, and the famous retreat of the ten thousand Greeks, 
conducted and described by Xenophon. 

The Athenian populace deserved, and have received the execration 
of posterity ; they seemed to court the bitter judgment that Providence 
inflicted : yet the name of Athens is dear to mankind ; and its calami- 
ties enlist the sympathies of the coldest reader in every age. The 
number of illustrious personages that arose to adorn that little city, 
redeems its character from the infamy and odium reflected upon it by 
a capricious and cruel multitude; and the severest censor never over- 
looks the rudeness and ignorance common in those times to the lower 
classes, in every known city and country. Despotism is a curse to 
every people, and democracy is only a blessing to enlightened commu- 
nities. Misery is the fated condition of every ignorant people, and no 
form of government can make them happy. 

Whatever punishment the Athenians deserved, they amply suffered 
under the yoke of Sparta and the Thirty Tyrants. A faction long 
devoted to the interest of the Spartans, and now their chosen instru- 
ments of oppression, were not slow in selecting their victims, nor timid 
in the business of torture and execution. Revenge marked out its ob- 
jects ; jealousy rolled its saffron eyes around for prey ; and wanton 
cruelty fixed its fangs on all that revenge and jealousy would spare. 
Grief was hushed into silence ; a tear or sigh was treason ; and men 
without a murmur or visible emotion, must witness the cruel stroke 
that robbed them of their innocent and unoffending friends. Socrates, 
we know not how, was spared, to be the victim of licentious freedom. 
Voluntary exile prolonged the life of some for daring enterprizes and 
noble deeds. 

Thrasybulus, with a little band of kindred spirits, found an asylum at 
Thebes. The Thebans had blindly fought the battles of Sparta, in hopes 
of humbling Athens, without once reflecting that they were forging 
their own chains. But they were not long in making the discovery, 
after the capture of that city, and the conclusion of the war had ren- 
dered their equal alliance unnecessary, and even offensive to Sparta. 
This late discovery reconciled the Thebans to their prostrate enemies, 
and prepared them to give a kind reception to Thrasybulus and his 
party, the generous deliverers of their country. To appreciate the he- 
roic enterprize which we are about to witness, we must recollect that a 
Spartan garrison in the citadel of Athens guarded the cruel despotism 
of the thirty vigilant tyrants. Spartan spies infested the streets, and 
invaded the houses of Thebes, and every motion of the exiles was 
scrutinized. Yet such was the secrecy, skill, and caution of these da- 
ring adventurers, that their departure in different disguises, and va- 
rious directions, was unnoticed at Thebes, and first announced to the 
admiring Athenians in the surprise and capture of the port of PirsBus. 
On the first alarm, the Thirty Tyrants led their chosen band of armed 
citizens to the instant slaughter, as they thought, of the returning ex- 



28 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [lECT, III. 

iles, so few in number. But it Avas a combat of a few heroes with a 
host of slaves, who had submitted to be the instruments of a despotic 
sway over their unarmed fellow-citizens, without courage or spirit to 
brave the assault of heroes, inspired with a love of freedom, and stung 
by recent injury. The first onset decided the victory ; and when the 
exiles called out to their flying fellow-citizens to desert the tyrants, and 
join the standard of freedom, the invitation was instantly accepted : the 
soldiers, just before the prop of tyranny, now caught the enthusiasm of 
their returning brethren, marched with them to the city, and equally 
enjoyed the pleasing spectacle of their cruel masters flying in all di- 
rections from the sudden tempest that burst upon their heads. This no- 
ble transaction is dated in the year 3604 ; and is rendered the more 
striking by a precisely similar enterprise, twenty-two years later, in 
3(52(5, by which Pelopidas, and other Theban exiles at Athens, deli- 
vered Thebes from the fangs of the perfidious and cruel Spartans. 

The first transports of joy at Athens were succeeded by just appre- 
hensions of the power and vengeance of Sparta ; but the mild and pa- 
cific disposition of Pausanias, one of the Spartan kings, checked the 
sullen fury of his people, and secretly favoured the interest of Athens. 
He was obliged to dissemble his views, and appear to attempt the re- 
covery of the city ; but his well-timed cautions and delays saved it 
even from any serious trial of strength. The name of Sparta, how- 
ever, was terrible, and for some years inspired the Athenians with a 
cautious and dissembling spirit, which reduced them, in appearance, 
to a secondary rank, till the long contest between Sparta and Thebes 
emboldened them once more to resume their ancient station of equality. 

After the deliverance of Athens, the states of Greece struggled about 
forty years against the domineering encroachments of Sparta, till the 
battle of Mantinea, 3(541, in which Epaminondas, the Theban, tri- 
mnphed over that haughty power, and humbled it to a secondary 
grade. Had the Spartans rested satisfied with a moderate dominion, 
or a firm and temperate use of their superiority, they might have 
swayed all Greece for a long time, and prevented those wasting wars 
that demolished their own power, and reduced the whole country un- 
der the dominion of Macedon. Instead of exercising a mild policy, 
and reconciling the minds of men to their pretension, by uniting them 
all in some great project, they rashly tried the patience of their allies 
and subjects, trusted entirely to their physical strength to insure obe- 
dience, and ventured alone to attempt the subversion of the Persian 
monarchy, without deigning to consult their neighbours, or allow them 
to participate in the glory. 

The invasion of Asia by the Spartans, brings into view a hero who 
long figured the chief of the Greeks, and valiantly sustained the sink- 
ing glory of Sparta, till the fatal battle of Mantinea. We allude to 
king Agesilaus, who, with the aid of Lysander, supplanted Leotychi- 
des, the lawful heir, on pretence that he was not the son of Agis, but 
of Alcibiades. Posterity is indiflerentto the parties, and could not de- 
cide their pretensions on any known testimony. It is sufficient for us 
that Agesilaus disowned his brother's heir, and got him set aside. 
Two such generals as Agesilaus, and his friend Lysander, were capa- 
ble of leading the Spartans to glorious exploits, and of shaking a great 



LECT. III.] OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 29 

empire by their effective enterprises. Their pretence for invasion was 
the protection of the Asiatic Greeks from the tyranny of Persia, under 
which they had fallen after the downfall of Athens. Their destructive 
incursions soon betrayed more extensive schemes, and the facility with 
which they abandoned the Greeks of Asia in a treaty a few years 
after with the Persian monarch, unveiled their selfish policy. The 
Persian monarch witnessed their progress with panic terror, in- 
structed by the folly of his father, Darius Nothus, who had aided those 
very Spartans against Athens, and admonished by the celebrated ex- 
pedition of his brother, who had lately penetrated to the heart of his 
dominions, and menaced his throne. 

In the midst of his embarrassment and dread, a well-timed policy 
brought relief to the mind of the Persian. He saw the use that he 
might make of the discontent of Greece, which would kindle into a 
flame, if suitably encouraged with timely aid. Secret embassies en- 
couraged the disaffected states to take up arms, and liberal supplies of 
money actually enabled them to commence their hostile operations 
with energy and success. Argos, Corinth. Thebes, broke out into 
open and decisive revolt. Athens pursued a more cautious course, 
from a dread of Sparta ; but her feelings were equally hostile, and her 
measures, on the whole, favoured the league. Agesilaus was urging 
on his career of victory in Asia Minor, and flattering his hopes with 
the promise of a mighty conquest, when he received a peremptory 
command from his country to return into Greece and defend it against 
the formidable power of the league. His obedience was as prompt as 
the order was painful. He marched through Thrace into Bceotia, 
encountered the confederates in an indecisive combat, and retired to 
Sparta, having merely checked the success of the allies. This was 
the year 3610. 

The same year exhibited on another scene a more decisive result. 
In the year .3600, we saw Athens taken by Lysander, after the defeat 
and flight of Gonon, who took refuge from the power of Sparta, and the 
feeble rage of his own people, at the island of Cyprus. Thrasybulus 
had restored freedom to his country, but the pons and walls still lay 
prostrate in ruin, and seemed fated long to continue so. History re- 
cords with pleasure and surprise, that these ports and walls rose again, 
rebuilt by the spoils of Sparta, and the gold of Persia, which Conon 
won, and bore in triumph to Athens. Conon had received a commis- 
sion from the king of Persia to command a large fleet fitted out against 
the Spartans. Eager to wipe off the stigma of his former defeat, the 
intrepid Athenian sought the combat, carried the victory, broke the 
naval power of Sparta, and flew to his native Athens with the rich 
booty, which was at once appropriated to rebuild the walls, and 
strengthen and beautify the city. Thus, ten years after Athens was dis- 
mantled, in consequence of Conon's defeat in the Hellespont by Lysan- 
der, its works rose again, with their original strength and beauty, in 
consequence of this victory. From that time she gradually renewed 
her ancient alliances, and recovered her former islands and cities, but 
could never regain the political standing which she supported in the 
time of Pericles. 

Such was substantially the state of all the parties at the expiration of 



30 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [lECT. III. 

ten years, 3610. The recall of Agesilaus from Asia, relieved the king 
of Persia, and checked the operations of the league. The victory of 
Conon broke the Spartan naval power, and restored the superiority at 
sea to the Athenians. The succeeding ten years was an anxious state 
of ferment and disaffection ; the Spartans watching every motion with 
jealous care, and all the other states restless, impatient of a superior, 
but afraid to rise or hazard a doubtful conflict. Finally, in 3617, the 
Spartans, conscious of their inability to repress much longer the spirit 
of revolt, sought relief by an expedient that inflicted an eternal stigma 
upon their character. They agreed to abandon the Greeks of Asia 
Minor to the mercy of the Persian king, in exchange for his protec- 
tion of their tyranny in Greece, though they had so lately assailed his 
dominions under a pretence of vindicating the liberty of those very 
Asiatic Greeks, now so willingly abandoned. 

The clamours of discontent and indignation were now heard with 
the most provoking apathy by the haughty Spartans, secure in their 
shameful alliance with a Persian king. Negotiation was busy ; re- 
monstrance was loud ; but nothing could change the purpose of a 
Spartan. In 3622, Thebes fell into the hands of a Spartan army, by 
a stroke of perfidy that would stain the character of any nation in any 
age. The army was on its march through Boeotiato Thrace, entered 
the city with honest professions and reluctant permission, perfidiously 
seized the citadel, and set up a Spartan tyranny over the terrified inha- 
bitants. This wretched condition endured about five years, during 
which, very few events happened worthy of notice. In 3827, Thebes 
was unexpectedly delivered by the bold enterprise of a band of Theban 
exiles at Athens, headed by Pelopidas, and assisted by the cool, deli- 
berate aid of Epaminondas. The whole narrative has the air of ro- 
mance, more than of real history. The Athenians lent a favourable 
countenance to a bold enterprise, but still respected the power of Spar- 
ta too much to hazard an open contest. The design was entrusted only 
to a few chosen heroes, who proceeded in the disguise of huntsmen, 
entered the city by different gates, and united, according ta concert, in 
the dead of night. Some trusty citizens were prepared to receive 
them, and join in the sudden blow of surprise and slaughter. The 
calm philosophy of Epaminondas had veiled his heroic virtues from 
the roving eyes of jealousy, when the impatient and intrepid Pelopi- 
das was pursued into banishment. The heroes were equal in courage 
and integrity, and unlike in all other qualities. Both sighed for the 
liberty of Thebes, one a silent spectator of the oppression that drove the 
other from its bosom. 

The heedless hour of debauch was chosen to assail and despatch the 
tyrants. The rustling of a leaf, or the barking of a dog might have 
defeated the conspiracy, stifled the fame of two illustrious men, and 
changed the history of Greece. But the convivial security of the ty- 
rants, the fortune and fearful vigilance of the exiles, conducted the con- 
spiracy to a successful issue. The tyrants fell by the daggers of intre- 
pid men; the noise of the scuffle awakened the city to the horrors of 
commotion, and the agonies of dreadful suspense. No man could in- 
form another of the cause of the tumult. Shrieks and screams express- 
ed the distressing uncertainty of women and children, and increased 



LECT. III.] OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 31 

the perplexities of the men. The appearance of day disclosed the fall 
of tyrants and the triumph of liberty. In a moment, every man was a 
hero; one impulse carried the exulting populace to the citadel; the 
fury of attack was for a while resisted, but soon prevailed, and Thebes 
was forever delivered from Spartan tyrants and Spartan garrisons, 
in 3627. 

As soon as this news reached Sparta, an army was put in motion; 
hut all attempts to penetrate to Thebes failed. An indecisive conflict 
marks the next six years, till the glorious battle of Leuctra, in which 
Epaminondas and Pelopidas made a bloody havoc in the Spartan ranks, 
and gained a complete triumph. In an interval of eight years more, 
till the battle of Mantinea, nothing very memorable occurred, except 
the famous expeditions of Pelopidas into Thessaly, against Alexander, 
tyrant of Pherse. Prompt to obey the summons of the Thessalians, 
oppressed by that cruel and perfidious tyrant, Pelopidas entered the 
country with some Theban soldiers, defeated the tyrant, and then fol- 
lowing the impulse of precipitate valour, rushed into his enemy's 
snares, and became a prisoner. He vvas not permitted to languish 
long in that situation. The inviolable friendship of Epaminondas soon 
brought another army that humbled the tyrant, and set his captive 
free. But the groans of the oppressed people soon called Pelopidas 
back to Thessaly, and victory again perched upon his standard ; but 
the heat of resentment again urged him to encounter the tyrant in sin- 
gle combat, and he fell, slaughtered by the tyrant's guards, a victim to 
rash courage. 

The fame of his justice and magnanimity was known to the neigh- 
bouring nations. The Persian king received him in the character of 
an ambassador, and honoured him above others connected in the em- 
bassy. The mother of Philip of Macedon drew him to that court to 
adjust the quarrels among her sons, disputing the succession of their 
deceased father, Amyntas the Second. On this occasion he was per- 
mitted to take Philip, the youngest son, then ten years of age, among 
other hostages, to bind the parties to his award. The residence of 
Philip at Thebes, for ten years, and his extraordinary education, then 
under the greatest masters of Greece, was fruitful in consequences. 
We shall soon see him mount the throne of Macedon, after the death 
of his elder brothers. Pelopidas died 3638, three years before the 
battle of Mantinea, which consummated the glory of his country, and 
reduced Sparta to the second rank of states. 

From 3610 to 3641, the Spartans and Thebans displayed the jealous 
animosity which lust of power on one side, and impatience of the yoke 
on the other, never fail to engender. There were, however, but a few 
active and bloody campaigns between them for so long an interval of 
hostility ; the rancour, irritation, and invective never ceased ; irreso- 
lute campaigns, skirmishes, and commotions, were frequent; but the de- 
tail is tedious. The deliverance of Thebes by the exiles, the battle of 
Leuctra, and the battle of Mantinea, are the principal events of inter- 
est; and there was an interval of several years between them. Sparta 
was, for the first time, profaned by the hostile tread of the Theban 
army, led by Epaminondas : he was repulsed, and obliged to retreat to 
Mantinea, in Arcadia, where he fought the enraged foe, and died in 



32 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. [lECT. III. 

the arms oi victory; a victory that raised his own little state to the 
first rank, and prostrated the power of Sparta. 

After the close of this memorable contest, the short calm that suc- 
ceeded was soon interrupted by a new and more bloody conflict, called 
the Phocian, or Sacred war, which completed the disasters of Greece, 
by introducing- the conquering arms of Philip. That sagacious and 
aspiring young man unexpectedly found the throne of his father left open 
to his ambition by the death of two elder brothers, and the infancy of ihe 
lawful heir. Fearing some detention at Thebes, he stole clandestine- 
ly away, flew to Macedon, and usurped the throne of his nephew at the 
age of twenty, having been a hostage at Thebes ten years. His resi- 
dence in Greece set before his eyes the best and brightest models for 
imitation in the arts of government and war: he witnessed the noble 
examples of Epaminondas and Pelopidas, and followed them in their 
campaigns. He listened with raptures to the lectures of Plato, Aris- 
totle, Epaminondas, and other sages of that period ; in fine, to the na- 
tural fierceness and subtilty of a barbarian, he united all the refine- 
ment, policy, and learning that education could bestow in the most 
flourishing period of Grecian literature. 

Difficulties beset this young monarch in every shape, and on every 
hand. The claim of an infant nephew stood in his way; the compe- 
tition of brothers perplexed him ; barbarous neij^hbours, despising his 
youth, harassed his kingdom ; his own barbarous subjects disputed his 
sway and preferred his cotnpetitors ; and the Athenians espoused the 
cause of his brothers. Merely to say that he surmounted all these for- 
midable difficulties, would be praise due to him in common with a thou- 
sand others, who have overcome as great, if not greater obstacles. But 
to glide through them all, without appearing to struggle, or fearing to 
sink, vvas a felicity peculiar to this extraordinary personage. The per- 
petual wars that engaged his attention, never rufiled the man nor jeo- 
pardized the monarch. He flew from place to place with the same 
ease as speed ; his victory was sure, and his attack or defence as cool 
as it was fierce. Conscience interposed no check ; its voice was silent 
or stifled, and the politician predominated. No good man could under- 
take or accomplisti what Philip did; but he was a greater and better 
man than his irresistible son, Alexander ; and it is as ridiculous to mea- 
sure the vices of Philip by the invectives of Demosthenes, as to esti- 
mate the virtues of Augustus by the praises ot Virgil. The same in- 
dulgence that would give Augustus no harsher name than bloody ty- 
rant, would rank Philip among saints. 

Such was the conqueror of Greece ; and the civil distractions of 
Greece favoured his inordinate ambition. The Athenians had allies 
and colonies on the whole coast of Thrace and Macedon, adjoining 
Philip's hereditary territories, and tempting his ambition ; and ihey 
had aflTorded him some provocation by espousing the cause of his com- 
petitors and enemies. As soon as he had composed the dissensions of 
his own kingdom, repressed the barbarians, and established his throne, 
he commenced a crafty course of intrigue and war, to reduce all around 
him to his subjection. He caressed the cities in alliance with Athens, 
and allured them to his interest by promises of protection and inde- 
pendence. 



INTRODUCTION 



TO 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 



The reader who has occasion to consult maps, may usefully direct 
his researches in the following order and manner : On a map represent- 
ing the whole world, or, at any rate, the whole Eastern continent, the 
situation of the Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Africa should 
be carefully noticed; and also the Strait of Gibraltar, through which 
this sea communicates with the Atlantic. Observe the situation of 
Spain, France, Italy; ancient Greece comprised in modern Turkey in 
Europe, and Asia Minor comprised in modern Turkey in Asia, all on 
the north side of the sea. On the south side, Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, 
Tripoli, Lybia, (including Gyrene,) and Egypt. On the east end of 
the sea ; Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine, included in modern Turkey 
in Asia. Observe the different expansions and contractions of this 
sea; its gulfs, bays, and arms. Notice the situation of Greece, be- 
tween the Ionian sea, and the JEgean or Archipelago. Bound Asia 
Minor, and notice particularly the succession of seas and straits that 
form the chain of communication between the Mediterranean, and 
Black, or Euxine seas. The subdivisions of Greece and Asia Minor, 
are given at the end of the chart. 

Trace a voyage round the peninsula of Africa, through the Atlantic 
arid Indian oceans into the Red sea, which lies between Arabia on the 
east, and Abyssinia and Nubia, (comprised in Upper Etheopia,) and 
Egypt on the west. Another voyage round the peninsula of Arabia, 
into the Persian Gulf, conducts to ancient Chaldea, or Shinar, situated 
at the head of the Gulf, on the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. , North 
of Chaldea lies Mesopotamia, between the Euphrates and Tigris, which 
have their sources in Armenia, still further north. Assyria lies east 
of the Tigris, which separates it from Mesopotamia. Me Jia and Per- 
sia lie between the Caspian and Persian Gulf, andeajt of Chaldea an4 
Assyria. Babylon was situated on the Euphrates, Nineveh on the' 
Tigris. The Assyrian Empire embraced, at some periods, several! 
other countries besides Assyria proper : the Persian Empire emfe aced, 
in addition to Persia proper, all the countries in Asia, fromi the Indus 
on the east, to the Grecian seas on the west; and Egypt ioi Africa was 
annexed to this empire by Cambyses the son of Cyrus, 

v 



& ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

General distribution of the above mentioned countries, with their 
principal cities or towns. 

Countries North of the Mediterranean. 
SPAIN, GAUL, ITALY, GREECE, MACEDON, THRACE, ASIA MINOR. 

East of the Mediterranean. 
ARAM, OR SYRIA— CANAAN, OR ISRAEL. 

South of the Mediterranean. 

EGYPT, LIBYA, AFRICA PROPER, CARTHAGE, NUMIDIA, and 
MAURITANIA. 

On the Tigris and Euphrates. 

At the mouth of the two rivers— SHIN A A R, or CHALDjEA, 
Between the two rivers MESOPOTAMIA. 

East of the two rivers ASHUR, or ASSYRIA. 

At the head of the two rivers ARMENIA. 

Between the Black and Caspian Seas. 
COLCHIS, IBERIA, ALBANIA. 

Between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. 
MEDIA, PARTHIA, ELAM or PERSIA. 

On the Rhine. 
HELVETIA, RH^TIA. 

On the Danube. 
ILLYRIA, MCESIA, NORICUM, VINDELICIA, SCYTHIA, DACIA. 

As the countries on the Mediterranean Sea were the scenes of most 
of the events recorded in ancient history, it is important to know their 
relative situations. 

SPAIN 

Was called Hispania, and Hesperia, by the Romans ; its name with 
the Greeks was Iberia. Its divisions were Lusitania, corresponding' 
to the modern Portugal in the west, Bcetica in the south, and Tar- 
KACONENSis in the north and east. 

GAUL, 

Or, in the native Celtic, Gael, was called Gallia by the Romans, and 
Celtica by the Greeks. The name of France, which is now applied 
to the greater part of ancient Gaul, is derived from the Franks, who, 
500 a. D., possessed themselves of that portion which lay north of the 
Loire, whence they gradually extended their empire south. Its ancient 
divisions were, in the south-west, Aquitania; in the south-east Nar- 
BONENSis, in the north-west Ltjgdunensis ; beyond the Seine, in the 
north, Belgica; and east of the Alps, Cisalpine Gaul, or what is now 
the north of Italy. 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. O 

ITALY, 
Inhabited by Gauls in the north, by native Umbrians, Tuscans, Sam- 
nites, Latins, and Campanians, in the centre, and in the south by 
Gi'eeks. 

GREECE. 

The moderns have taken the name of this country from the Latin; 
that by which it was known to the Greeks themselves was Hellas for 
the part north, and Pelopennestts for that south of the Isthmus of 
Corinth. The name Hellas, however, denoted rather any spot where 
an Hellenic race prevailed, than a certain geographical boundary. 
AcJiaia was the name of Greece as a Roman province. 

MACEDON, 
This country which, from the time of Philip, claimed to be considered 
as a part of Hellas, was most probably of Illyrian origin ; and its peo- 
ple, like the other Illyrians, were looked upon as barbarians by the 
Greeks. Its boundaries were exceedingly variable, particularly on 
the side towards Thrace. 

THRACE. 
The people of this country were of heterogeneous races. They claim- 
ed nevertheless to be the earliest founders of Greek civilization, and 
were probably allied in origin as in manners with the people of Asia 
Minor, on the shores of the Hellespont, before the period of the Trojan 
war. 

ASIA MINOR. 
It is important that the learner be cautioned against associating with 
his idea of Asia as a portion of the ancient world, the notions which he 
connects with it as a division in modern geography. To the ancients 
the name of Asia, at different periods, conveyed different meanings. 
Thus, in the periods before the Persian war, it designated a small 
region only about the Caysfer ; with the Romans it signified the 
kingdom of Pergamus, but never at any time became a designation of 
the great eastern continent, or even of the whole peninsula. Indeed, 
Persia, or at least Persian, was at all times a term of more extensive 
slgaification among both Greeks and Romans, than Asia or Asiatic. 

SYRIA, 
Which in its most limited acceptation included only the narrow- 
coast of the Mediterranean lying between Egypt and Cilicia, and 
comprising Phcenicia and the Holy Land, in a more general sense, 
included frequently all the country lying west of the Tigris, and even 
beyond it ; as the kingdom of Assyria Proper was not unfrequently 
embraced within that term. Indeed it is requisite for the student of 
ancient history to be constantly on his guard against the danger arising 
from the confusion of the two names in the ancient geographers and 
historians. As the kingdom of the Selencidae, Syria attained its great- 
est extent, including the countries of Phoenicia, Babylonia, &c., and 
the cities of Antioch and Saleucia, besides the more aneient capitals. 



^ ancip:nt geography. 

CANAAN, 
Which never extended its lame over a very wide tract of country, 
was divided into the kingdoms of Judah and Israel. The latter of 
these was terminated with the Assyrian, and the former, which con- 
tinued longer, with the Babylonish captivity. Canaan was bounded 
by Phoenicia on the north, and by the Wilderness of Arabia on the 
south. 

EGYPT. 

The narrow strip of land lying on either side of the Nile was called 
Egypt, and joined the two continents of Asia and Africa, being some- 
times assigned to one and sometimes to the other, though modern geogra- 
phy has determined it to belong to the latter. Its ancient divisions were 
Lower Egvpt, or the Delta ; Middle Egypt, or the Heptanomis and 
Upper Egypt or the Thebais. In the early history of Egypt Thebes 
and 31emphis were the principal cities; indeed, as strictly Egyptian, 
they continued to be so through all antiquity. But for commercial and 
political importance in the Grseco-Egyptian period of the Ptolemies, 
the capital was Alexandria. 

LIBYA. 
This was the name of the African coast extending from the borders of 
Egypt to the Syktis Major, where it was bounded by Africa Proper. 
Its southern limit remained always undefined. 

AFRICA PROPER, 
A part of Africa, from which the name was gradually extended over 
the whole continent. If we include Carthage, it reached from Libya 
to NuMiDiA, and these are the boundaries assigned to it by Pliny the 
naturalist and geographer. 

NUMIDIA. 
This country, which lay between Africa Proper and Mauritania, 
is famous in history from its connexion with the wars of Carthage and 
Rome. It was the kingdom of Masinissa, for whose sake the third 
Punic war, which resulted in the ruin of Carlhage, was undertaken; 
and under the rule of Jugurtha, it carried on one of the most obstinate 
wars against the republic that had ever occupied the Roman arms. 
On being reduced to a province, it received as its first governor the 
historian Sallust. 

MAURITANIA, 
The most western portion of the coast of Africa, and lying immedi- 
ately opposite to Spain, comprised the countries which now con- 
stitute the empire of Morocco and Fez. It contained a large but un- 
civilized population in the time of the Romans. 



Introduction to the Geography of Greece. 

Observe the position of Greece between two seas, the iEgean, which 
separates it from Asia Minor on the east, and the Ionian, which sepa- 
rates it from the island of Sicily, and the foot of Italy on the west. No- 



ANCIENT GEOGRAP HY . 5 

tice the narrow passage from the Ionian sea into the Adriatic sea, or 
Gulf of Venice, formed by a considerable projection from Italy, called 
the heel of Italy, and a small projection from Epirus in Greece, called 
Aero Ceraunium. Observe a chain of islands distributed along the 
western coast of Greece, called the Ionian Islands : Corcyra, Leuca- 
dia, Cephallenia, Ithaca, and Zacynthus. Passing between Cephal- 
lenia and the main land of Greece, enter the narrow Gulf of Corinth, 
which nearly separates the Peloponnesus from Greece Proper, and 
trace the Gulf to the isthmus of Corinth, a narrow neck of land which, 
joins the Peloponnesus to Greece Proper. Retreating from the Gulf, 
coast round the Peloponnesus, carefully noticing the projections which 
it presents ; the little island of Cythera, and the large island of Crete, 
Melos, and ^Egina in the Saronic Gulf, which being on the east side 
of the isthmus of Corinth, opposite to the Gulf of Corinth, forms a part 
of the separation between the Peloponnesus and Greece Proper. Ob- 
•serve a chain of small islands ranging with Greece Proper, from north- 
west to south-east, and a more important chain, ranging with the large 
island of Eubea, in the same direction: Andros, Tenos, Delos, Naxos. 
Pass through a gulf, a strait, a second gulf, and a second strait, that 
separate Eubea from Greece Proper, and after noticing in the way, the 
inferior gulfs Maliac and Pelasgic, return into the ^gean by the pas- 
sage north of Eubea. Coast to the head of the Thermaic Gulf: observe 
the large peninsula of Chalcis or Chalcidice, projecting three smaller- 
peninsulas ; coast round them into the Strymonic Gulf. Observe the 
Thracian Chersonesus, a peninsula on the west side of the Hellespont ; 
pass through the Hellespont, Propontis, Thracian Bosphorus, into the 
Euxine north-easterly across the Euxine, through the Cimmerian Bos- 
phorus, into the MoBotis Palus. Return into the iEgean, notice the 
range of islands along the coast of Asia Minor: Lemnos, Lesbos, 
Chios, Samos, Cos, and Rhodes ; and Cyprus in the Levant south of 
Asia Minor. 

The people of the several states of Northern Greece may be charac- 
terized by certain epithets, deduced from their very peculiar and dis- 
tinguishing characteristics, either of situation, habits, laws, history, or 
political condition and character. 

GREECE PROPER. 

Thus : Sprightly Attics — Dull Bceotians — Sacred Phocians — 
Wandering Dorians — Barbarous Locrians — Wild ^tolians — 
Obscure Acarnanians. 

The number of Athenian poets, orators, artists, &c., in comparison 
with those produced by the other states of Greece, sufficiently vindi- 
cate the correctness of the epithet o[ sprightly as applied to the Attics. 

The opposite reason equally justifies the application of dull to the 
Boeotians, whose stupidity has passed into a proverb. 

Though the Delphians claimed to be a distinct people from the Pho- 
cians, yet the seat of their oracle, and the situation of Delphi itself, 
entitled the Phocians to the epithet of the sacred. 

Crete, Rhodes, Doris in Asia Minor, the Doric states of Sicily and 
Italy, and the vast revolutions occasioned by the restless character 
of the Dorians, attest their z^awrferm^ propensities. 



O ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

The little advancement of the Locrians in letters and the arts, may 
be inferred from the fact of their having furnished not a single name 
in the catalogue of Grecian poets, artists, philosophers, &cc. 

iEtolia early lost its Hellenic character, so that it became impossible 
to determine to what race or races its wild and ferocious tribes 
should be assigned. 

The same may be observed of the Acarnanians. 

In Hellas Proper were 

ATTICA. 
Cities. — Athens, with its ports of Pirama, 31uui/chia, and Phale- 
rum j Elcusis, which imparted its name to the great Mysteries, 
Huniuni, Marathon, and Acharnoi. 

MEGARIS. 
Cities. — Megaris, Nisma, Pegoi. 

BCEOTIA. 

Cities. — Thesyice. When the rest of Boeoiia submitted to Xerxes, 
the Thespians alone refused to lender earth and water to his deputies. 
This city was celebrated as the birth place of the beautiful Phryne, 
whose statue by Praxiteles vied in beauty with that of Venus. She 
was so rich that she offered to restore the walls of Thebes at her own 
expense, if the Thebans would set up this inscription — ''Alexander 
overthrew, Phryne rebuilt them. 

PlatcBa. The Plataeans separated themselves from the Boeotian 
confederacy, and placed themselves under the protection of Athens. 
They shared the glory of the battle of Marathon, and participated in 
the great battle which takes its name from their city. The attack 
made upon them by the Thebans at night was the first act of aggres- 
sion on the Peloponnesian side in the Peloponnesian war. Nothing 
in the history of that war is so interesting as the account of the siege 
of Platasa in the third year, with the gallant defence and successful 
escape of a part of the garrison. 

Thebes, the capital of Bceotia, is of more ancient, if not of greater 
celebrity than almost any other city of Greece. The arrival and set- 
tlement of Cadmus; the birth of Hercules; the story of ffidipus and 
Jocasta, the wars of the Seven and of the Epigoni,all belong to the poetic 
history of Thebes. In the more authentic period, she became noto- 
rious for her adherence to the cause of the Persians ; nor was it till 
the era of Epaminondas and Pelopidas that she quite recovered her 
character as an Hellenic city. The battles of Leuctra and Mantine? 
placed her for a moment at the very head of the affairs of Greece. 

Haliartus, — Coroncea, — Lebadcea, famous for the oracle of Trophf 
nius, — Chceroncea, originally Ante, the scene of the battle gained L^ 
Philip over the Athenians and Boeotians, which ended the liberties o\ 
Greece, B. C. 338. 

Orchomenus, the second city of Boeotia, and at one time rivalling 
Thebes in power, wealth, and importance. Homer represents it q.s 
vying with the most opulent cities in the world, and its wealth is said 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. / 

in his time to have bpen deposited in a building erected for that 
purpose, which Pausanius describes as equally worthy of admiration 
with the walls of Tiryns and the pyramids of Egypt. Tanagra. 

PHOCIS. 

Cities. — Cirrha, destroyed by order of the Amphictyons, and its 
territory declared accursed. 

Crissa, famous for the Pythian games celebrated in its plains. 

Anticyra. — Delphi, the seat of the great Oracle of Apollo, and of the 
Amphictyonic council. 

Elattea and Daulis, celebrated in history as the scene of the tragic 
story of Phlomele and Procne. 

DORIS, OR DORIC TETRAPOLIS, 

From the four cities of 

Citinium, which was entitled to send one delegate to the Amphicty- 
onic council — Pindus — Boium and Erincus. 

LOCRIS OF THE EPICNEMEDII AND OPUNTIANS. 

Cities. — Alpeni — Cynus, the chief maritime city of the Opuntian 
Locri. 

Opus, one of the most ancient cities of Greece, and celebrated as the 
domain of Deucalion and Pyrrha, and as the birth place of Patroclus. 

LOCRIS OF THE LOCRI OZOLCE. 

Cities — Naupactus. This city is said to have taken its name, which 
signifies ship building, from the circumstance that the fleet was there 
built by which the Dorians were conveyed over into the Peloponnesus. 

Amphissa, the most important town of the Locri Ozoloe,. It was 
destroyed by order of the Amphictyons for having rebuilt the walls and 
cultivated the grounds of Crissa, which had been declared accursed. 

^.TOLIA. 

Cities — Calydon, celebrated in poetry and mythological story for 
the adventures of Meleager, the hero of the chase of the Calydonian 
boar. In the historical ages its importance declined till Augustus ac- 
complished its downfall by removing the inhabitants to Nicopolis. 

Thermus, the place at which the elections of the jEtolian magistrates 
Avere ratified, and where their most magnificent festivals and important 
commercial meetings were held. Though not frequently alluded to in 
the ancient authors, its size and splendour may be inferred from the cir- 
cumstance that when surprised by the Macedonians, it contained up- 
wards of 2000 statues, which the invaders defaced in revenge for the 
excesses committed by the jEtolians at Dodonaand Dium. At the same 
time, 15,000 complete suits of armour found in the city were consum- 
ed, after others more costly had been selected as worthy of removal. 

ACARNANIA. 

Cities. — Actium, notwithstanding its fame as the scene of the great 
battle which gave Octavius Caesar the world, appears to have been at 
that time but the site of a temple, with a small and obscure harbour 
below. 

Amphilochian Argos, and (Eniadm. 



8 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

PELOPONNESUS. 
In Peloponnesus the following epithets may be considered as de- 
signating- with equalcorrectness the peculiarities of the different pro- 
vinces : — 

Isthmian Corinth, from its situation. 

Fickle Argolis, from the frequency with which it changed sides in 
the various contests of the different neighbouring states. This cha- 
racter prevented the Argians from ever obtaining that supremacy in 
the affairs of Greece which their bravery might have acquired. A 
fabled exception must be made in the time of the Trojan war, when 
Agamemnon stood at the head of the hundred princes of the famous 
league. 

Laconic Sparta. The opposite of Athens in every moral and intel- 
lectual attribute, Sparta was, most especially so, in that conciseness of 
speech which has rendered the word laconic a synonyme for brevity 
of speech, in every tongue. 

Servile Messenia, from the dependance to which she was reduced 
by the Spartans, who made Helots of such of her people as chose to 
remain in their country after the unfortunate struggle o-f Aristomenes, 
and the departure of the rest of the Messenians to the places of their 
voluntwy exile. 

Sacred Elis, from the Olympic Games. 

Leagued Achaia. This league, called the Acheean, Avas formed 

first against the Macedonians and afterwards against the Romans. It 

extended itself at last so as to comprise almost all the states of Greece. 

Earliest Sicyon, from its antiquity, which dated, at least in fable, 

from its first king ^gialus, B. C. 2089. 

Rural, or Pastoral Arcadia. The situation of this province, shut 
out as it was from the sea-coast, and its rugged and mountainous sur- 
face, compelled its inhabitants to adopt the pastoral occupation, as the 
only one by which they could provide themselves with the necessaries 
of life. The poetic character of the Greeks converted this necessity 
into a grace ; and the fabled residence of Pan and his rural attend- 
ants in the caves and glens of Arcadia, have rendered its name synony- 
mous with all that is beautiful and alluring in the life of the shepherd. 

The Southern division of Greece or the Peloponnesus, was divided 
into the following States with their cities. 

CORINTHIA. 

Cities. — Corinth, on the Isthmus at the entrance of the Peninsula. 
Its ports were, Lechoeum on the Corinthian Sinus, the emporium of 
Corinthian traffic with Western Greece, Italy and Sicily ; and Cen- 
chrce on the Saronic Gulf, whence the Corinthians traded with Asia 
and the Cyclades. 

ARGOLIS. 

Cities. — Argos, the most ancient city of Greece. Its port was Nau- 
plia. 

MycencB, the capital of Argolis during the reigii of the Pelopid 
princes. Its origin was assigned, in fble. to Perseus. After the re- 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 9 

turn of the Heraclidae, it declined till the year 468 B. C, when the 
Argives, having captured it, levelled its walls and buildings, and en- 
slaved its inhabitants. 

Tiryns, celebrated for its vast Cyclopean walls, is said to have been 
founded by Proetus, brother of Acrisius. Its origin was undoubtedly 
of the earliest Pelasgic period. It was from this city, his patrimonial 
inheritance, that Hercules, after the murder of Iphitus, fled, and yielded 
up to his kinsman of the line of Sthenelus the dominion of the Pelo- 
ponnesus. 

LACONIA. 

Cities. — Sparta and its port of Gythium. 
MESSENIA. 

Cities. — Pylos, Methane, Qi]pea, which, after the restoration of the 
Messenians, was called Corone, where Philopcemen was taken prisoner 
in the war occasioned by the secession of Mes.sene from the Achaean 
league. 

Andania, the capital of Messenia before the domination of the He- 
raclidas. 

Messene, and the mountain fortress oi Ira, the last hold of the Mes- 
senians in their wars with Sparta, so long and so wonderfully defended 
by Aristomenes. 

ELIS. 

Cities. — Elis. This city always remained without walls, as it was 
deemed sacred and under the immediate protection of the god whose 
festival was there solemnized. Flence in early times' those troops 
which were compelled to traverse this country were obliged to deliver 
up their arms on entering it, and received them back upon quitting the 
frontier. 

Pylos was one of the three ancient cities which disputed the honour 
of being the capital of Nestor's dominions. The others were Pylos of 
Triphylia, and the Messenian Pylos. Pausanias admits the claim of 
the Elian city. 

Pisa, the city of ffinomaus and Pelops, which long disputed with 
Elis the presidency of the Olympic Games. 

Olympia, celebrated for its games and for the magnificent temples of 
Jupiter and Juno. 

ACHAIA. 

Cities. — Sicyon. Few cities of Greece could boast such an anti- 
quity, since it already existed under the name iEgialea and Mecone, 
long before the fabled arrival of Pelops in the Peninsula. It was the 
birth place of Aratus. 

Egium, PatrcR, jfEgira, and Dyme. 

ARCADIA. 
Cities. — Mantinea, celebrated for the last battle of Epaminondas. 
Orehomenus — Megalopolis — Phigalea — Tegcea, next to Mantinea, 
the most ancient city of Arcadia. 

The divisions in the north, and sometimes rejected as a part of 
Hellas Proper, were: — 



10 A N C I E N T G E O G R A P H Y. 

EPIRUS. 

Cities. — Ambracia, the modern Arta. This city is remarl(ab]e for 
the gallantry displayed in its defence against the Romans, as well as 
for the important part which it took in the Peloponnesian war; having, 
according to Thucydides, sustained in the defeat of its army by De- 
mosthenes the greatest loss that ever befel a Grecian city in the same 
space of time during the whole war. Its inhabitants were transferred 
by Augustus to Nicopolis. 

Nicopolis, built by Augustus in honour of the victory at Actium, and 
settled in a great measure by the removal of the populations of the 
neighbouring cities, and of some even as far as ^tolia. 

THESSALY. 

Cities. — Gomphi, Tricca. It is remarkable that when by a decree 
of Polysperchon, after the death of Alexander, it was ordered that all 
exiles throughout the cities of Greece should be allowed to return to 
their homes, the people of Tricca, and of the neighbouring Pharcadon, 
alone were excepted. 

Gonnus, or Gonni — Larissa — Phera;, one of the most ancient and 
important cities of Thessaly, the capital of Admeius, and the scene of 
the beautiful story of Alcestis. In the historical ages, this city became 
unfortunately notorious as affording one of the earliest pretexts for the 
interference of Philip in the affairs of Greece. 

Pharsalus, the scene of the last contest between Ceesar and Pom- 
pey, and of the final struggle for Roman liberty. 

Thebes, denominated Phthiotic, to distinguish it from the more 
famous Thebes of BoBotia, 

Larissa Cremaste, so called from the steepness of its situation, was 
also named Pelasgia, and was a part of the dominion of Achilles, 
whence he was called the Larisscean. 

lolcos, famous in the heroic ages as the birth place of Jason, was 
situated at the foot of Mount Pelion, and near the river Anaurus, in 
Avhich that hero is said to have lost his sandal, an event so intimately 
connected with the Argonautic expedition. Its harbour was Pagassa, 
Avhence the Argo set sail on her adventurous voyage. 

Demetrias, which owed its origin and its name to Demetrius Polior- 
cetes. It soon became an important place, and after the battle of 
Cynocephalse was the chief town of the Magnesian republic, and the 
seat of government. 

MACEDON. 

The Chittim of the sacred writings. 

Cities — Dium, yEg(B, or Edessa, Bercea, Tlierma, afterwards called 
Thessalomca, Chalcis, Potidoea, Olynthus, and Acanthus. 

THRACE. 
Its principle cities Avere Amphipolis and Philippi, sometimes assigned 
to Macedon, Abdera, Sestos, Perinthus, and Byzantium. 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 11 



GRECIAN ISLANDS. 

IONIAN ISLANDS. 

CORCYRA, LEUCADIA, ITHACA, CEPHALLENIA, ZACYNTHUS, 
TAPHIAN ISLANDS, ECHINADES, AND CYTHERA. 

CORCYRA, 

In Homer called Scheria, the country of the Phseacians, and 
subsequently colonized by the Dorians of Corinth. This island, 
remarkable for the refractory and factious disposition of its population, 
had colonized Epidamnus, or Dyrrachium, in Illyria, opposite Brun- 
dusium. This colony revolted from Corcyra and Corcyra from 
Corinth. The Spartans took part with Corinth, and the Athenians 
with Corcyra; out of this conflict arose the Peloponnesian war. The 
name of Corcyra in modern geography is Corfu. 

LEUCADIA, 

More properly called Leucas, with its promontory of Leucate, 
celebrated in antiquity for the Lover's Leap, first tried by Lesbian 
Sappho, was originally joined to the continent by an isthmus, which 
the Leucadians cut away during the Peloponnesian war. The modern 
name is Santa Maura. 

ITHACA, 
Six miles south of Leucas, is a small island, but important in the early 
fabulous history of Greece, as the kingdom of Ulysses, and the scene 
of the greater part of the Odyssey. 

CEPHALLENIA. 
The earliest name of this island was Samos, and its principal and old- 
est city was called Same. Its produce was wine, oil, and olives. 

ZACYNTHUS, 

Famous for her colony of Saguntum, at the moutli of the Iberus in 
Spain, the destruction of which by Hannibal, in violation of the treay 
between Carthage and Rome, excited the second Punic war. 

TAPHIAN OR TELEBGEAN ISLANDS, 

A considerable group between Leucadia and the coast of Acarnania. 
Though very small, these islands are remarkable as the haunt of the 
boldest pirates and hardiest maritime adventurers of the Homeric age. 
The principal one, which gave its name to the group, was Taphos, 
afterwards called Taphiussa. 

ECHINADES, 
A group of small islands frequently, mentioned in the poets, at the 
mouth of the Achelous. Dulichium is supposed to have been one of 



l)i ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY 

them, and to have been submerged, accord hig to a belief still enter- 
tained by the Greek sailors, that there is such a sunken island two 
miles from Cephallenia, extending seven miles. Others suppose that 
Oxece, an island more to the virest, is the Dulichium of the Odyssey. 
'J'hey have, for the most part, become joined to the main land by the 
alluvial deposits of the waters of the river. 

CYTHERA, 

South of the promontory of Malea, the extreme point of the Pelopon- 
nesus, a Spartan dependency, and governed by a magistrate sent thither 
annually from the city. Some mythologists relate that Venus at her 
birth emerged from the sea near this island, which was the first land 
that received her ; the fable is by others referred to Cyprus. 



ISLANDS OF THE SARONIC GULF. 

SALAMIS, 
Celebrated equally in poetry and history, was an Ionian island, lying 
opposite the Eleusinian coast. It was the birth place of the greater 
Ajax and of Solon, but derives its greatest celebrity from the great vic- 
tory obtained near it by the confederated Greeks, over Xerxes and the 
Persians, B. C. 480. 

^GINA 
Was a Dorian colony, having been occupied by people of that race 
both from Crete and the Peloponnesus. The iEginetce were distin- 
guished in the Epic period as forming a part of the army of Diomed, 
and in the latter ages of history as having borne off the first prize of 
valour at the battle of Salamis. Their piracies were notorious ; and 
the adventurous spirit in which they conducted them rendered iEgiria 
the chief emporium of Greece. They also are said to have been the 
first coiners of silver money. During the Pelopennesian war, the 
Athenians expelled the whole population, and replaced them with some 
of their own citizens. They were reinstated by Lysander. 



CYCLADES. 

DELOS, MYCONOS, TENOS, ANDROS, CEOS, CYTHNOS, SERIPHUS, 
SIPHNUS, CIMOLUS, MELOS, PAROS, NAXOS, SYROS, GYARUS. 

DELOS, 
Sacred to Apollo and Diana, from the belief that it had been a floating 
island till arrested by Neptune to receive Latona in her wanderings, 
and become the birth place of the Delian twins. From its sacred cha- 
racter, it w'as chosen by the Greeks as the safest place of deposit for 
their moneys levied during the Persian war. These and other funds, 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 13 

however, were still placed there after the close of the contest. The 
Athenians, who had the direction and manag-ement of the treasury, 
used it for the improvement of their own city, the establishment of 
their temples, &c. 

CEOS, 
The birth place of the two greatest lyric poets of Greece, Simonides 
and Bacchylides was the most considerable of the Cyclades. It was an 
Ionian colony, peopled from Attica, from the coast of which it lay but 
five miles distant. Its inhabitants were the first who introduced ele- 
gance in female attire in place of the ancient simplicity. It was so 
much more populous than productive, that every man on reaching 60 
years of age was compelled to swallow poison. 

CYTHNOS 
Was a colony of the Dryopes, a little south of Ceos. 

SERIPHUS, 
Also south of Ceos, was celebrated in mythology as the scene of the 
most remarkable exploit of Perseus, who converted the king Polydec- 
tes and his principal subjects into stone by means of the head of Medusa. 
In the reign of the emperor Domitian, Seriphus was used as a place 
of confinement for prisoners of state. 

SIPHNUS 
"Was colonized by the lonians. At one period its revenue exceeded 
that of all the other islands; in the time of Strabo, however, its 
poverty had become a proverb. 

CIMOLUS, 
One of the least important of the Cyclades. 

MELOS, 

About midway between Cape Scyllaeum in Argolis and the Dyctan- 
seum in Crete. The Athenians reduced this island during the Pelo- 
ponnnesian war, put all the males to death, enslaved the women and 
children, and sent a colony of 500 of their own citizens to repeople the 
island. 

PAROS, 
During the Persian war, the most flourishing of the Cyclades. It sus- 
tained a siege of twenty-eight days against Miltiades, after the battle of 
Marathon ; and his ill success in this enterprize, or his injustice in at- 
tempting it, was the cause of his ruin. The Parian marble was famous 
throughout Greece, but the greatest boast of the island was its having' 
been the birth place of the poet Archilochus. 

NAXOS, 
The most considerable of the Cyclades, was twice as large as Paros. 
The failure of the expedition undertaken by the Persians against this 
island led to the revolt of the Ionian states, and ultimately to the Per- 
sian invasion of Greece. It had received an Ionian colony from 



14 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

Athens, though at first peopled by Carians. Fable named it as the 
birth place of Bacchus, probably from the success with which the vine 
was there cultivated. 

TENOS, 
Called also Hydrussa, from the abundance of its springs. 

ANDROS. 

The Andrians having been compelled to join the armament of Xerxes, 
were called upon after the battle of Salamis to make atonement by pay- 
ment of a large sum of money. This demand they declared them- 
selves unable to complj'' with, as they were beset with two deities, 
Poverty and Want, who never quitted the island, and v;ho opposed the 
payment of the required sum. 

GYARUS, 
Little more than a barren rock. It became, in the days of the empire, 
a place of banishment for criminals. 



SPORADES. 

The Greeks comprised under this name the numerous islands which 
lay scattered around the Cyclades, and those which lay towards Crete, 
and the coast of Asia Minor. The most celebrated was 

THERA. 

It was said in fable to have been formed from a clod of earth thrown 
from ship Argo, and was called at first Calliste. 

AMORGOS. 
The birth place of Simonides, the Iambic poet, 

CARPATHUS, 
Which gave its name to the Carpathian sea. It lay between Crete 
and Rhodes, being distant from the latter 50 miles. 

CRETE. 

This was, perhaps, of all the islands of Greece, the most famous. In 
poetry and mythology it is associated with the names of the father of 
the gods who was fabled to have been born there ; Minos and the 
Minotour : Ariadne, Theseus and the labyrinth; Diedalus and Icarus. 
Its principal cities were Cydonia — Gnossus, the royal city of Minos, 
and the scene of the principal fables alluded to above. Gortys, or GoV' 
tynia — Prasus, near which was the celebrated Mount Diete, the birth 
place of Jupiter, with the Dictaean cave, where he was nursed in his 
infancy, and fed miraculously on bees; — Lyctus, one of the most 
considerable places in the island. 

EUBOEA. 
The earliest inhabitants of this island were called Abantes, by which 
name alone they are mentioned in Homer. Before the time of the 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 15 

Peloponnesian war, the whole island Avas reduced to acknowledge the 
supremacy of Athens. Though frequently in revolt to recover their 
independence, the Eubceans never succeeded in casting off the Athenian 
yoke till the twenty-first year of the Peloponnesian war, when, by the 
assistance of the Spartans under Hegesandridas, they gained an impor- 
tant victory of the Athenian fleet, and subsequently recovered their 
liberty. The principal cities of this island were Histicea, afterwards 
Oreus, Chalcis, and Eretria. 



EUBCEAN ISLANDS. 

SCYROS. 
The first inhabitants of this island were Dolopians, who were after- 
wards expelled by the Athenians. It was here that Theseus was said 
to have died, or to have been killed by falling or being thrown from a 
precipice : and here too Achilles was concealed by his mother to pre- 
vent ihe fulfilment of the prediction of his early death, in case he should 
accompany the Greeks to Troy. 

SGIATHUS, SCOPELOS and HALONNESUS. 



THRACIAN ISLANDS. 

THASOS. 
This island derived immense wealth from its silver mines, the reve- 
nues amounting at times to three hundred talents. The inhabitants 
retained the old Cabiric worship. 

SAMOTHRACE. 

The chief celebrity of this island arises from the mysteries of the 
Cybele and her Corybantes, which were said to have originated here. 
These were connected with the worship of the Cabiric, which also 
prevailed, if it did not originate, among the Samothracians. 

LEMNOS. 
This island owes its note rather to poetry and fable than to its histori- 
cal importance. Vulcan was called the Lemnian God from the cir- 
cumstance of his having been received in his fall from heaven by the 
Sintians. The story of Jason, Hypsipyle and the Lemnian women, 
connected with the legend of the Argonautic expedition, gives still 
greater poetical celebrity to the island. 

IMBROS, 
Like Lemnos was a seat of the early Pelasgi, and remarkable for the 
Cabiric rites performed there with peculiar solemnity. 



16 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY, 



ASIATIC GREEK ISLANDS. 

TENEDOS, 
A small but important island at the mouth of the Hellespont. Its con- 
nexion with the events of the Trojan war gives it its greatest celebrity, 
although it is not without its historical associations in the periods of 
more authentic history. 

LESBOS. 
The chief city of this island was the capital of all the Ionic cities of 
Asia. It was remarkable for the number of illustrious names associ- 
ated with it. Alcseus, Sappho, Phaon, and Pitlacus, one of the seven 
sages of Greece, were natives of Lesbos. The dominant people were 
Dorians. 

CHIOS, 
The modern Scio, celebrated for its capacious harbour, in which a 
hundred vessels could ride at anchor. The wine of Chios Avas in 
high repute. Its population Avas Ionian. 

SAMOS, 
Lying off the Ionian coast. It was the fabled birth place of Juno, 
whose worship Avas celebrated by the Samians with peculiar solem- 
nity. Her temple in the city of Samos was considered by Herodotus 
as one of the finest works of Grecian architecture, and by him ranked 
with that of Diana of Ephesus. It is here that the first statues were 
cast in bronze ; but the greatest boast of Samos was its having been 
the birth place of Pythagoras, who was expelled thence by the tyrant 
Polycrates. 

ICARIA. 

This was an island of some extent, lying west of Samos, and the fabu- 
lous origin of its name is referred to the story of Daedalus and Icarus, 
from which "that of the circumjacent sea was also derived. The Sa- 
mians used this island for pasturing their cattle. 

PATMOS, 
A small island west of Icaria, which owes all its celebrity to the cir- 
cumstance of its having been the place of banishment of St. John, who 
wrote there his apocalypse. 

CALYDN.E ISLANDS, 
A small group of the coast of Caria, celebrated for their honey. The 
principal of these was Calymna. They are all spoken of by Herodo- 
tus as subject to Artimisia. 

COS, 
A Doric island, called also, more anciently, Mf.ropis. Hippo- 
crates and Apelles were natives of this island. Its productions were 
the whetstone, which takes its name in many languages from that of 
the island, and a peculiar kind of transparent silk, much worn at Rome, 
and severely inveighed against by Juvenal. 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 17 

RHODES, 
Famed for its colossus, which was considered one of the seven wonders 
of the world. The Rhodians were a Doric people, but took little in- 
terest in the affairs of their brother Greeks ; and in the wars of their 
countrymen with the Romans they espoused the cause of the latter. 
The Rhodians worshipped as their tutelary deity the sun, in whose 
honour the colossus was erected. 

CYPRUS. 
This large island was south of Cilicia and west of Syria. From 
Paphos, the city of Venus, it was sometimes called Paphia, and from 
Salamis, the most important place in the island, said to have been 
founded by Teucer, and from him to have received the name of Sa- 
lamis, ill honour of his native island, it was also called Salaminia. 
The character of the people is said to have been conformable to that of 
their peculiar worship; and the term Cyprian has become a synonyme 
of dissoluteness and effeminacy. It was here that Cymon died during 
the seige of Citium, as he was on his Egyptian expedition. In the for- 
tunes of Egypt those of Cyprus were for the most part invoh'^ed, as 
she may be considered a dependency of that country, until, as such, she 
fell under the Persian dominion. 



ISLANDS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. 

BALEARES, 
Consisting of Majorca and Minorca, to which Ivica was sometimes 
added. They lay off the coast of Spain, and received the name of Bal- 
eares from a Greek word that signifies to cast, because the inhabitants 
Avere most expert slingers, and used the sling as their principal wea- 
pon. Their modern names are derived from the adjective 3Iajor and 
Minor, which distinguished the greater from the lesser Balearis. 

CORSICA, OR CYRNUS, 
As it was called by the Greeks, was a rude and uncultivated island 
during all the period of its occupation by the Romans, and was used 
by them occasionally as a place of banishment for state criminals. It 
was here that Seneca lived in exile during the reign of the emperor 
Claudius. 

SARDINIA, 
Called also by the Greeks Ichnusa, from the shape of its coast. It 
was equally remarkable for the rude independence of its inhabitants, 
the ruggedness of its surface, and the fertilit}'^ of its soil. This island 
produced a singular herb, which, on being eaten, occasioned spasms of 
the face, while the patient died as if with a laugh upon his lips; hence 
the expression sardonic laughter. Iberians were perhaps the first 
occupants of Sardinia, but successive colonies and partial conquests 
gave it afterwards to the Carthaginians, the Greeks, and the Romans, 

3 



18 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

Yet the rugged mountaineers of the interior may be said never to 
have been fully subdued, even by the conquerors of the world. 

ILVA, 
In modern geography Elba. 

iENARIA, 
The modern Ischia. 

CAPRE^, 
Off the coast of Campania, famous as the scene of the dissolute enjoy- 
ments of Tiberius, who erected there twelve costly villas, designated 
by the names of the twelve greater gods. It is at present remarkable 
for the quantities of quails caught in it, the number varying per an- 
num from 12 to 60,000. 

LIPARA. 
The largest of the ten ^olian islands. These islands, which lay off 
the Bruttian coast, and north of Sicily, derived their name o{ jEolian 
from having been the.residence of the fabled tEoIus, king of the winds. 
They were also called Vulcanm, from their volcanic character. One 
only, however, still retains an active volcano; this is Stromholi, the an- 
cient Strongyle. 

SICILY. 

This greatest island of the Mediterranean contained a number of cities 
which figured largely in ancient history. It is separated from the 
coast of Italy by the Straits of Messina, which are in the narrowest part 
but two miles wide. Its original inhabitants were the Sicels, to whom 
succeeded the Sicanians. Very little remained, however, of their his- 
tory, even in the time of the Greeks and Romans ; the principal cities 
having been founded afterwards by Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthagin- 
ians, and Romans. The fertility of this island caused it to be looked 
upon as the granary of Rome. In Homer and the ante-historic tradi- 
tions, the Cyclopes and Lsestrigons were the earliest inhabitants of this 
island. The volcano of ^Etna most prob.ably furnished the basis of 
the greater part of the fables and wonders of Sicily in the early poetry 
of Greece. Sicily was sometimes called Trinakia and Trinacria, from 
the three promontories at its points — Pelorum, Lilyboeum, and Pachy- 
num. Among the many illustrious cities of this island, we may parti- 
cularize Agrigentum and Syracuse. 

MELITA, 
Or Malta, an important island about 60 miles south-east of Sicily. 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 19 



ASIA MINOR. 

Included all that was termed Asia by the Romans and apostles. It 
was divided into Mysia, Lydia, Caria in the west ; settled and civilized. 
by colonies from iEolia, Ionia and Doris ; Lycia, Pamphylia and 
Cilicia in the south ; Pontus, Paphlagonia and Bithynia in the north; 
Cappadocia, Phrygia and Pisidia in the centre. 

The above countries were settled by Japhet and his descendants. 

Divisions with principal Cities. 

Cappadocia, including Pontus — Trapezus, Amisus. 

Galatia, or GallograBcia, including Paphlagonia, Sinope, Ancyra. 

Bithynia — Heraclea, Nicomedia, Nicaea, or Nice, Prusa. 

Mysia — Abydos, Ilyium, or Troy, Pergamus. 

Lydia— Smyrna, Clazomene, Sardis, Ephesus, ThyatiraJ 

Caria — Miletus, Halicarnassus. » 

Lycia — Myra. 

Pisidia, including Pamphylia, Aspendus. 

Cilicia — Tarsus, Issus. 

PONTUS. 

Cities. — Trapezus, now Trebisond, founded by a colony from 
Sinope. In the ages of the lower empire it became the capital of the 
dynasty founded by Alexis Comnenes, and remained independent of 
the Greek empire ever after. It was the most eastern city upon the 
coast. 

Cerasus, some distance west of Trapezus. Cherries were first in- 
troduced into Europe from this place, whence they took their name, 
680 B. C. 

Amisus, the largest city of Pontus, was situated upon the gulf 
which takes its name from it, at the mouth of the Halys. 

Amasea — Comana. Amasea, the birth place of Mithridates the 
Great, and Strabo the geographer. 

CAPPADOCIA. 

Cities. — Comana, famous for the great temple of Bellona, served by 
upwards of 6000 ministers. 

Mazaca, afterwards called Caesarea ad Argaeum, the capital of 
Cappadocia. 

Tyana, the birth place of Apollonius, the famous impostor and 
Pythagorean, whose miracles, by the opponents of Christianity, have 
been compared with those of the Saviour. 

PAPHLAGONIA. 

Cities. — Sinope. A colony from Miletus; the^ most important 
place, in a commercial point of view, on the shores of the Euxine. 
The cynic Diogenes was born in this city. Amastris. 

GALATIA. 
Cities. — Ancyra— Pessinus, a city of extremely remote origin, and 



20 ANCIENTGEOGRAPHY. 

famous for the worship of Cybles, which was celebrated there with 
peculiar rites. 

BITHYNIA. 

Cities. — Heraclea, founded by Doric colonists from Megara. 

Prusa — Chalcedon. This city was founded a short time before 
Byzantium, and was called by Megabyziis, a Persian satrap, the city of 
the blind, because its inhabitants, in the selection of the site, chose this 
in preference to the more advantageous situation upon the opposite 
coast, where Byzantium was afterwards founded. 

Nicomedia, at the head of the gulf which takes its name from the 
early town of Astacus. As Nicomedia was on the direct route from 
Constantinople to the more eastern parts of the empire, it became fre- 
quently the residence of those emperors who conducted in person the 
military operations in the East. It was said at one time to be the fifth, 
city in the Vv^orld for magnitude, and the first for beauty. 

NiccBU, at one time the capital of Bythnia, having for a period 
superseded Nicomedia. It was "here that the first part of the creed, 
thence called the Nicene, was adopted, in the time of Constantine. 

MYSIA. 

Cities. — Cyzicus, built on a peninsula, or, according to Strabo and 
Pliny, on an island in the Proponiis, on the northern shore of Mysia. 
It flourished greatly through commerce ; so much so, that Floras call- 
ed it the Rome of Asia. 

Adrastia — Lampsacus — Ilium or Troy, 

Adramyttium — Pergamus, the capital of a kingdom of the same 
name, founded B. C. 282. Its last king, Attalus Philomator, bequeath- 
ed it to the Roman people, B.C. 143. In this place parchment was 
first invented, and hence its name. 

Charta — Pergamena. Its famous library, containing upwards of 
200,000 volumes, was transferred by Cleopatra to Egypt. Apollodo- 
rus the mythologist, and Galen, were natives of this place. 

LYDTA. 

CiTJES. — Cuma, a city proverbial for the remarkable stupidity of its 
inhabitants. Ephorus and Hesiod, however, were Cumseans. 

Phoccea, one of the most important conimercial places of Asia 
Minor, before the conquest of Lydia by Cyrus. When pressed by 
Harpagus, one of the generals of the conqueror, the Phocseans put 
their wives and children on board of their galleys, and abandoned 
their city to the Persians. A part of them, however, returned, but the 
remainder continued their voyage, until after various vicissitudes, they 
finally established themselves on the coast of Gaul, where they founded 
the city of Massilia, now Marseilles. 

Clazomcne. The first city of this name stood on the main land 
west of Smyrna ; but on the fall of Crossus, terrified at the progress of 
the Persian arms, the inhabitants, who were lonians, removed to a 
neighbouring island, where they rebuilt their city. In the time of 
Alexander it was joined to the main land by a causeway, a part of 
which still remains. It was the birth place of Anaxagoras. 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 21 

Smyrna, one of the few cities of Asia Minor which retains in modern 
times some degree of its ancient importance. 

Teos, the birth place of Anacreon. The people of this island found- 
ed the city of Abdera in Thrace, under circumstances similar to those 
by which the Phocaens were driven from their country. 

Lebedus, one of the twelve cities of Ionia. 

Thyatira — Sardis, the city of Croesus and capital of Lydi.i. 

CARIA. 

Cities. — Myndus, on the gulf of lassus. The punishment of a 
Myndian captain by the Admiral of the Persian fleet destined against 
Naxos, produced the failure of that expedition, the revolt of the lonians, 
and ultimately the invasion of Greece by the arms of Darius. 

Halicarnassus, the city of Artemisia, and the birth place of Herodo- 
tus and Dionysius the historians. It was originally one of the Doric 
confederacy of six states, called the Hexapolis. On the exclusion of 
Halicarnassus, this confederacy was called the Pentapolis. A second 
Artemisia caused the erection of the celebrated mausoleum in memory 
of her husband Mausolus. The city was razed to the earth by Alex- 
ander in consequence of its resolute resistance to his arms. 

Cnidus, the capital of the Dorians of Asia. The whole Triopian 
peninsula belonged to the Cnidians; and when they were threatened 
l3y the Persians under Harpagus, they consulted the oracle upon the 
expedient of separating themselves from the main land by cutting 
through the isthmus. The Pythian answered, that " if Jupiter had 
wished it to be an island, he would have made it so." The city then 
surrendered to the Persians. The great victory of Conon over the 
Peloponnesian fleet, which transferred the empire of the sea again to 
the Athenians, was fought off the coast of Cnidus. 

Mylasa, celebrated for the great number of its temples in proportion 
to its population. It is said that the musician Stratonicus, placing 
himself in the forum, and observing this disproportion, began his reci- 
tation and performance by exclaiming Hear, oh ye temples! 

Alahanda, This town was so situated among hills as to suggest 
the idea of an ass with a pack saddle ; whence a certain orator, allud- 
ing to the number of scorpions which abounded in its vicinity, called it 
an ass laden with scorpions. It was noted for the voluptuousness of 
its inhabitants, and the number of its singing women. 

PHRYGIA AND LYCAONIA. 

Cities. — Ipsus, celebrated for the great battle fought in its plains by 
the forces of Cassander, Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus, against 
Antigonus and his son Demetrius. 

Laodicea — Colossm — Celtsnce, a very ancient city, famous in fable 
for the story of Marsyas and the legend of Midas. 

Apamea, built by Antiochus Soter, who removed thither the inhabi- 
tants of CeliEnse. In the time of Strabo, it was the largest town of 
Phrygia, yielding in commercial importance to Ephesus alone, of all 
the cities of peninsular Asia. 

Iconium, the principal city of Lycaonia, more celebrated in the mid- 



22 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 



die ages than in antiquity. It became the capital of a Turkish empire, 
whose princes were called sultans of Iconium. 

ISAURIA, 

Frequently considered as a part of Lycaonia ; its principal city bore 
the name of Zsaura. 

LYCIA. 

Cities. — Telmissus, famous for the skill of its augurs. 

Pinara — Xanthus. The inhabitants of this place were illustrious 
for their dauntless courage, having twice sacrificed themselves to avoid 
falling into the hands of the enemy. The first time was on the inva- 
sion of Lycia by Harpagus, when they buried themselves under the 
ruins of their walls and temples; the second, when their town was 
invested by Brutus, and being unable to break his lines, they cast 
themselves with their wives and children into the flames. 

Patara — Olympus, one of the six chief communities of Lycia. It 
was in the neighbourhood of the celebrated Solymsean mountains, of 
which the Chimarea was one. 

Phaselis, famous for its manufacture of rose perfume. 

PAMPHYLIA. 
Cities. — Attalia — Aspendus, a noted haunt of the Asiatic pirates. 

PISIDIA. 

Cities. — Termessus — Selge. The inhabitants of this place were 
remarkable for their love of liberty, and for their success in defending 
it against all the powers which successively held dominion in the 
peninsula. 

CILICIA. 

Cities. — Coracesium — Anckiale, which is said to have owed its 
foundation to the Assyrian Sardanapalus, who commemorated the event 
in the famous inscription to the following effect : " Sardanapalus, the son 
of Anacyndarayes, erected in one day the cities of Anchiale and Tar- 
sus: stranger, eat, drink and be merry! the rest is not worth the snap 
of a finger." 

Tarsus, the metropolis of Cilicia, the birth place of the apostle Paul, 
and one of the most important towns of Asia Minor. 

Issus, at the head of the gulf which bears its name. It was here that 
Alexander gained his second great victory over Darius and the Per- 
sians. 



CANAAN. 

This country was called in ancient times the Land of Canaan, from 
Canaan the son of Ham; the Land of Promise, or Promised Land, 
from its being promised to the descendants of Abraham ; the Land of 
Israel, from the Israelites ; Judah and Israel, after the kingdoms were 
divided. Since the Christian era it is commonly designated by the 



A N C I E N T G E O G R A P H Y . 23 

name of Judea, from Judah, the principal of the twelve tribes ; Pales- 
tine, from the Philistines, who inhabited the southwest part of it; and 
the Holy Land, especially when mentioned in connection with the 
crusades. 

Previous to the removal of Abraham into this country, it was pos- 
sessed by the Canaanites, a people notorious for their idolatry and wick- 
edness. After its conquest by the Israelites, it was divided, among the 
twelve tribes by lot. Moses conquered the country east of the Jordan, 
and apportioned it to Reuben, Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseb. 
Joshua conquered the country west of the Jordan, and it was appor- 
tioned among the remaining tribes. 

Benjamin, Judah, Simeon, Dan, in the south, and hence sometimes 
called South Israel. 

Ephraim, Manasseh, half tribe in the centre, Issachar, Zebulon, 
Naphtali, Asher, in the north. These constituted North Israel. 

At the birth of our Saviour, Palestine was divided into four parts, 
Judea, south ; Samaria, centre ; Galilee, north ; Perea, east. 

COUNTRIES MENTIONED IN THE PENTATEUCH. 

Canaan, Wilderness. Egypt. 
Midian, Amaleh, Edam, south of Canaan. 
Midian 2nd, Moah, Ammon, east of Canaan. 
Philistia and Phoenicia, on the west coast. 

CITIES OF JUDEA. 

BENJAMIN. — Bethel, Ai, Jericho, Gilgal, Gibeah, Gibeon, Ra- 
mah, Bethany, Jerusalem, the capital on the boundary line between 
Benjamin and Judea. 

JUDAH. — Hebron, Bethlehem, Adullam, Engedi, Tekoah. 

SIMEON.-- jBeersAe6a, Gaza, Ascalon. 

DAN. — Gath, Ashdod, Ekron. 

EPHRAIM. — Samaria, Shechem, Shiloh, Timnaih-serah, Joppa. 

MANASSEH. — Tirzah, Jez-re-el, Megiddo, Cesarea. 

1SSACRAR.—Shunem, Nain. 

ZEBULON. — Gath-he.pha, Nazareth, Cana, Tiberias. 

NAPHTALI. — Dan, Kadesh, Hazor, Bethsaida, Capernaum. 

ASHER. — Ace, Acre, or Ptolomais, Tyre, Sidon, Sarepta. 

REUBEN. — Bezer, Heshbon, Bethabara. 

GAD. — Ramoth-Gilead, Mahanaim, Succoth. 

MANASSEH. — Edrei, Gadara, Gergesi, Golan, Geshuri. 

Five cities of the Plain. — Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim and 
Zoar. 

Five cities of the Philistines. — Gaza, Ascalon, Gath, Askdod and 
Ekron. 

Six cities of Refuge. — Three west of Jordan, Hebron, Shechem, 
Kedesh. 

Three east, Bezer, Ramoth-Gilead, Golan. 

RIVERS OF JUDEA. 
Arnon, Jobbok, Cedron, or Kedron, Besor, Sorek, Kishon, Belus. 



24 ANCIENT (i E O G R A P H Y . 

MOUNTAINS. 

West of the Jordan. — Lebanon, Anii Lebanon, Hernan, Carmel 
Tabor, Mountains of Ephraim, Israel, Ebal and Gilboa- 

East of the Jordan. — Bashan, Gilead, Abarim, Pisgah, Nebo. 

South of Palestine. — Seir and Hor. 

Four hills on which Jerusalem was built. — Zion, Moriah, Acra, and 
JBezeta. 

Four near the city — Mount of Olives, or Olivet, Calvary, Gihon 
and ^fountain of Offence. 

SEAS, OR LAKES. 
Dead Sea, or Lake Asphaltites, Sea of Tiberias, or Galilee, or 
Lake of Gennesareth. 



OUTLINE OF HISTORY, 

FROBI THE 

CREATION OF THE WORLD TO A.M. 3500. 



Outline of Hebrew History. 





PATRIARCHS. 




Adam, 


Lamech. 


REtf. 


Seth, 


— 





Enos. 


Noah. 


Serug, 


— 


— 


Nahor, 


Cainan, 


Shem, 


Terah. 


Mahal ALEEL, 


Arphaxad, 





Jared. 


Selah. 


Abraham, 


— 


— 


Isaac, and 


Enoch, 


Eber, 


Jacob. 


Methusaleh, 


Peleg, 


— 



129 

Death of 
Abel. 



The creation was completed in six days ; and the fall of man, and 
his expulsion from the garden of Eden, probably happened soon after 
Cain killed Abel, in the year of the world 129. The birth 
of Seth the next year, supplied, in the patriarchal line, 
the place of Abel, who was dead, and of Cain, who was re- 
jected. 

Cain, accursed of God for his crime, separated from his brother and 
went into the land of Nod, east of the Euphrates, where he built several 
cities, and became the father of an impious race of mortals, called the 
sons of men, little noticed in the Scriptures. 

Enoch, Irad, Mehujael, Methusael, and Lamech, lineally descended 
from Cain — Lamech had three sons : Jabal, the father of herdsmen ; 
Jubal, inventor of the harp and organ; Tubalcain, the first artificer in 
brass and iron. 

THE DISPERSION AT THE BIRTH OF PELEG. 

The most received opinion on this subject is, that at the birth of 
,^ep Peleg, 100 years after the flood, the sons of Noah were 
Dispersion, dispersed abroad and settled in different countries, as fol- 
lows :— 
Japheth and his sons peopled Asia Minor, Europe, and the islands. 
Japheth's sons were Gomer, Javan, Madai, Magog, Meshech, Tubal, 
Tiras. 



26 OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 

Of Shem's sons, Aram settled Aram or Syria, and Padan-aram or 
Mesopotamia. 

Asshur settled Assyria. 

Arphaxad, Chaldea or Shinar ; Elam settled Elam or Persia. 
Of Ham's sons, Cush settled Arabia, called Ethiopia in Genesis. 
3Iisraim settled Egypt, and from him sprang- the Philistines. 
Canaan settled the land of Canaaii. 

The different nations or tribes of Canaanites took their names from 
the eleven sons of Canaan, viz : the Amorites, Hittites, Sinites, Jebu- 
sites, Arvadites, Hivites, Sidonians, Hamathites, &c. 

Terah descended through several generations from Arphaxad, son 

of Shem, oppressed, perhaps, by the ambitious intrusion and extreme 

idolatry of Ham's posterity, removed with his family from Chaldea to 

Haran, in the north part of Mesopotamia, or Padan-aram. In 2083, 

Terah died ; and, in the same year, God having chosen 

2083 Terah's son Abraham, aged seventy-five, to be the father of a 

Abraiiam. peculiar people and holy nation, called or commanded him 

to leave Haran and go to Canaan, promising him a numerous 

posterity, who should inherit that land. Abraham left his brother 

Nahor at Haran, whose son Bethuel was father of Laban and 

Rebecca. 

In the second year after the calling, Abraham, during a famine in 
Canaan, went to Egypt with his whole family, where he passed his 
wife Sarah for his sister, and had the mortification to see her taken 
from him by the king, who restored her on finding she was his wife. 
Soon after their return to Bethel, in Canaan, Abraham, and his kins- 
man Lot, separated, by Abraham's pacific proposal, on account of a 
strife between their herdsmen, who could not find sufficient pasture for 
the numerous flocks of both: Lot went to Sodom, in the vale of Sid- 
dim ; Abraham, to MaiTire or Hebron, Avest of the vale of Siddim. In 
the seventh year, 2090, Chedoriaomer, king of Elam or Per- 
Chedoriao- gja, joined with three other kings, invaded the Promised 
sion of the Land. After overthrowing the gigantic Rephaims, Zuzims, 
^Land?* and Emims, east of Jordan, and the Horites, in Mount Seir, 
south of Canaan, they turned to the north, smote the Amo- 
rites, and entered the vale of Siddim, wiiere they vanquished the five 
kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboira, Zoar or Bela ; took 
great booty, and Lot among other prisoners. Abraham, with his nu- 
merous servants, pursued the victorious enemy, by Dan or Laish, to 
Hobah, west of Damascus, surprised and defeated them ; recovered Lot 
and all the spoils, which he scrupulously restored to the kings of 
Sodom, &;c. Melchisedek met and blessed Abraham on his return. 
In Gen. 15, 16, 17, we have an account of the repeated promises that 
God made to Abraham, of an heir, and of the sure inheritance of the 
Promised Land by his numerous posterity. The birth of 
ishmaei. Ishmael, eleven years after the calling, is recorded in Gen. 
Destruction 16. In the twenty-fourth year, after seasonable warning 
Gomo^ah.*" g^^^*^ ^Y God's angels to Abraham and Lot, Sodom and Go- 
morrah were destroyed, for the most horrible and unnatural 
sins, by fire and brimstone from heaven ; upon which the vale of Sid- 
dim seems to have been changed into a sea, called the Dead, or Salt 



OUTLINE OP HEBREW HISTORY. 27 

Sea. Lot and his two daughters fled to the mountains, and from them 
incestuously descended the Moabites and Ammonites, east of the Dead 
Sea and Jordan. Abraham went to Gerar, in the land of the Philis- 
tines, where Isaac was born in 2108, the next year after the destruction of 
Sodom and Gomorrah ; Abraham aged 100, Sarah 90, Ishmael 14. By 
permission of Abimelech, the king, Abraham lived many years at Beer- 
sheba, in the land of the Philistines. 

Ishmael, aged 19, was cast out into the wilderness of Paran, south 
of Canaan, where his descendants, the Ishmaelites, afterward dwelt. 
Twenty years after that event, Abraham, still living at Beer- 
^^™sof sheba, by God's command, went three days' journey to Mount 
Moriah, to offer his son Isaac, aged 25, for a burnt-offering; 
bat, after he had stretched out his hand to slay his son, God, sntisfied 
with his wonderful faith and obedience, bid him spare Isaac, and sacri- 
fice a ram in his stead. 

After Abraham had returned to Mamre or Hebron, Sarah died, 
aged 127, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah, which Abraham 
bought of Ephron, the Hittite. Three years after the death 
^^^riage!"*'^ of Sarah, Abraham sent his servant to Haran, in Mesopota- 
mia, who brought Rebecca to Mamre, where she married her 
cousin Isaac. 

Two years after the marriage of Isaac, Abraham married Keturah, 

by whom he had Midian. father of the Midianites, east of the 

EsaiL," Dead Sea. In 2168, Jacob and Esau were born; Isaac, 

their father, aged 60. Esau was a cunning hunter, a man 

of the field; but Jacob was a plain man, dwelling in tents. 

Abraham 2183, Abraham died, aged 175, and was buried in the cave 

dies, of Machpelah, by his sons Isaac and Ishmael. 
When Jacob and Esau were 31 years old, Esau, coming from the 
field faint and weary, sold his birthright to Jacob for red pottage. 
Isaac went to dwell at Beersheba, where he remained till after the 
marriage of Jacob. Esau gave offence to his father and mother by 
marrying the daughters of the Hittites. 

Isaac loved Esau because he did eat of his venison ; but Rebecca 
loved Jacob; and he, instructed by his partial mother, fraudulently ob- 
tained the blessing which Isaac had promised to bestow upon 
tbe Wesdng"* Esau on his return from the field with venison. Rebecca 
then advised Jacob to flee and avoid the rage of Esau ; and, 
at her entreaty, Isaac consented to let him go to Haran to marry one 
of his cousins. The fraud and falsehood of Jacob drove him from his 
father's house, a fugitive, with nothing but his staff, and destitute, for 
tlie time, of all earthly property that Esau's birthright or Isaac's bless- 
ing could confer ; yet the blessing 'indesignedly conferred upon him 
by Isaac, was ratified by Fleaven. Sleeping at Luz or Bethel, Jacob 
saw, in a dream, a ladder reaching to heaven, and angels ascending 
and descending upon it; and God stood above the ladder, and con- 
firmed to Jacob, in terms of peculiar benignity and magnificence, 
all the promises before' made to Abraham and Isaac. Isaac still lived 
at Beersheba. 

Twenty years Jacob lived at Haran, and served his unprincipled and 
miserly uncle Laban ; ^even years for Leah, who was deceitfully givea 



28 OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 

to him instead of Rachael, whom he loved ; seven years more for Ra- 
chael. Joseph, the first son of Rachael, was born at the end of the 
fourteen years. By a new agreement, Jacob served the last six years; 
and, during this period, notwithstanding the craft and injustice of La- 
ban, his father-in-law and uncle, Jacob became rich in cattle and flocks, 
with the most evident sanction of Providence. Eleven sons and one 
daughter were born to him during his twenty years' residence at Ha- 
ran. Twenty years after, fleeing from the resentment of his angry and 
injured brother, Jacob secretly left Haran, taking with him his wives, 
children, and flocks. On his way towards Jordan he was so hippy as 
to appease the wrath of Laban, who pursued him to Mount Gilead ; 
and soon after, by presents and kindness, he disarmed the resentment 
of his brother Esau, who had filled Jacob's breast with alarm by cross- 
ing the Jordan with 400 men to meet him. Shortly before this inter- 
view with Esau, Jacob received the name of Israel in wrestling with 
an angel. After dismissing Esau, he crossed the Jordan, and resided 
at Sheehem. 

The following events happened during the ne.xt ten years, viz : — The 
sudden departure of Jacob from Sheehem, in consequence of the per- 
fidious cruelty of Simeon and Levi to the Shechemites, to avenge their 
sister Dinah ; the birth of Benjamin, and death of Rachael, near 
Bethlehem ; the incestuous conduct of Reuben ; and the afTair of Judah 
and Tamar, the ancestors of Boaz, from whom descended Jesse, the 

father of David, and, ultimately, Jesus Christ. In 2275, 
into Egypu'"^ J°^^P^ was sold byhis brethren to Midianitish or Ishmaelitish 

merchants, who carried him into Egypt, and there sold him 
to Potiphar, captain of Pharaoh's guards. 

In 2288, Isaac died, aged 188, and was buried in the cave 
'^isMc.**'^ of Machpelah, by his sons Jacob and Esau. Soon after, Esau 

removed to Mount Seir or Mount Hor, south of Canaan, and 
from him descended the Edomites and Amalekites. — See 1 Chronicles, 
1st chapter, 35th and 36th verses. In the year of Isaac's death, Joseph, 
ten years after he was sold, was released from prison, Avhere he had 
been two years unjustly confined, and made governor of all Egypt, 
in consequence of interpreting Pharaoh's two dreams. 

In 2298, Jacob's whole family, consisting of seventy persons, male 

and female, went into Egypt by the invitation of Joseph, and 
^•''"^^*|,j"^° settled there under his protection. — See Gen., from the 39th 

to the 50th chapter, for the history of Joseph, of which no 
adequate abridgment could be made, and with which almost every child 
is acquainted. 

In 2315, after having lived in Egypt seventeen years, Jacob 
^^*'c(a/'' died, aged 147, and was carried with great pomp into Canaan 

by his son Joseph, and buried in the cave of Machpelah, 
at Hebron. 

Joseph had two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, whom Jacob, in his 
last moments, adopted as his own. He survived his father fifty-four 

years, and died, aged 110: having, like his father, predicted 
^^"^eph.^"' ^^^ return of his brethren into the Promised Land, and charg- 
ed them to carry his bones with them. Here ends the book 
of Genesis, and the book of Exodus commences. 



OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 29 

After the death of Joseph, the children of Israel became very numer- 
ous, and suffered every species of cruelty and oppression from the jeal- 
ous tyranny of the kings of Egypt. Moses, their deliverer, 
Moses, was born in 2430, three years after his elder brother Aaron. 
At that time, an existing decree of the king of Egypt, doomed 
every new-born son of a Hebrew to be cast into the river, to prevent 
the dreaded increase of this people. The mother of Moses, hoping to 
save the life of her infant son, after concealing him three months, ex- 
posed him by the river's brink, in an ark of bull-rushes ; the daughter 
of Pharaoh, the king, found the ark, saved the child, and had him edu- 
cated as her own son. Moses was descended from Jacob, through 
Levi, Kohath, and Amram, the father of Moses and Aaron. 

In 2473, Moses, aged 40, killed an Egyptian whom he 
theEgyptian. ^^^^ contending with a Hebrew ; and, to avoid the resentment 
of Pharaoh, he fled to Midian, east of the Red Sea, where he 
married Zipporah, daughter of Jethro, priest of Midian. Zipporah 
bore him two sons, Gershom and Eleazer. After Moses had been forty 
years with Jethro, God appeared to him in a burning bush, at 
''^bush!™" Mount Horeb, and commanded him to return to Egypt, and 
deliver Israel from bondage. He complied : his brother 
Aaron met him in the wilderness, and the two brothers gave such 
proofs of their mission, particularly by the ten plagues 
piaVe^. \^'hich they inflicted on the Egyptians, that Pharaoh finally 
consented to let Israel go and sacrifice, which was all the fa- 
vour that Moses and Aaron were enjoined to demand of the king. The 
ten plagues — the waters of Egypt turned into blood ; the land covered 
with frogs; the dust turned into lice; grievous swarms of flies sent 
into the houses ; the cattle killed with murrain ; man and beast afflict- 
ed with biles ; destructive hail sent, mingled with fire ; clouds of de- 
vouring locusts darken the whole land ; thick darkness for three days ; 
all the first-born of Egypt killed both of man and beast. On 
Passover. this occasion the Passover was instituted — a feast or ordinance 
designed to commemorate God's peculiar favour to his peo- 
ple in passing-over their houses, and sparing their first-born, when he 
killed all the first-born of Egypt. 

When the king found that the people were fleeing from Egypt alto- 
2513 g'sther, he pursued them ; but the Red Sea, which opened to 
Passage of the give Israel a passage, closed upon the pursuing host of Pha- 
RedSea. raoh, and drowued them. The children of Israel were con- 
ducted in their journey by a pillar of cloud by day, and a pillar of fire 
by night. Having crossed the Red Sea, and sung a song of praise to God, 
they journeyed to Marah, where Moses sweetened the bitter water by 
casting a tree into it ; thence, by Elim to Zin, where quails and manna 
were sent to appease the hunger and murmurs of the people; thence 
to Rephidim, where Moses struck the rock of Horeb, and drew water 
from it for his ever-murmuring brethren, and where Joshua defeated the 
cowardly-assailing Amalekites; thence, in the third month after cxorfws 
or departure, to Sinai, where God published his laws and command- 
ments, in a terrible voice, from the smoking top of the burning mount. 
Moses forty Here Moses, after spending forty days with God on the mount, 
days on the received from him the two tables oi the law in stone ; while 
"°'^" ' ' the people at the foot of the mount fell into gross idolatry, by 



30 OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 

making" and worshipping a golden calf, for which 3000 were put to 
death by the command of Moses, on his return. Here also the priest- 
hood was establislied in the family of Aaron ; and the whole family of 
Levi was set apart hr the service of religion ; the moveable tabernacle, 
the ark, and all their appurtenances, were made here. By 
70 Elders, the advice of Jethro, who came here to meet Moses, 70 elders 
were appointed to assist in judging the people — here the peo- 
ple were numbered, and found to be 600,000, that were males, twenty 
years old and upwards, besides Levites. The book of Exodus ends 
with the account of setting up the tabernacle. Leviticus contains the 
Levitical laws, or laws of Moses ; Numbers commences with an ac- 
count of numbering the people, and contains some laws, and con- 
siderable history; Deuteronomy gives a repetition of many 
euteronomy.j^^^g^ and relates the last transactions and death of Moses. 
On the 2Dth of the 2d month, of the 2d year after exodus or depart- 
ure out of Egypt, the people set off to pursue their journey toward the 
Promised Land. At Taberah, the fire of the Lord coi.jumed many of 
the people, because they murmured. At Kibroth-hittaavah, God sent 
quails in wrath, and .a plague destroyed great numbers of the people, 
because they murmured. At Hazeroth, God's anger was kindled 
against Aaron and Miriam, for murmuring against their brother Mo- 
ses. From Kadesh, Moses sent twelve men to examine the 
The 12 Spies, land of Canaan, who, except Caleb and Joshua, made an un- 
favourable report, calculated to terrify and dishearten their 
brethren : a mutiny ensued in the camp of Israel, and the rebellious He- 
brews threatened to choose a captain to conduct them back to Egyptian 
servitude ; which provoked God to denounce that all who were twenty 
years old, and upwards, should die in the wilderness ; that not one of 
them should enter the Promised Land, except Caleb and Joshua. Some 
of the people who went to attack the Canaanites, and enter the land, in 
defiance of God's commands, were smitten and discomfited. About 
two years had now elapsed since the exodus ; and, from this time, very 
little is recorded of this seditious and ungrateful people for the space 
of thirty-seven years, till the last year of Moses. In this interval we 
must place the wicked and fatal rebellion of Korah, Dathan,and Abiram, 
who were swallowed up by the earth before the door of the tabernacle. 
On this occasion, God gave a signal sanction to the authority of Aaron, 
by causing his rod only, out of the twelve rods laid up in the tabernacle, 
to blossom and bear fruit. 

At Meribah, in the last year of Moses, he and Aaron incurred God's 
displeasure by their impatient and unadvised manner of speaking to 
the people, when God commanded them to draw water from the rock 
for the murmuring host. For this offence Moses and Aaron w^ere both 
excluded from entering the Promised Land. — See Numbers 20, and 
Psalms 106, 32d and 33d verses. Miriam, the sister of Moses, died 
shortly before that event; Aaron died soon after it at Mount Hor, and 
his son Eleazer succeeded to the priesthood. Perhaps the place can- 
not be fixed where Moses made the brazen serpent to cure those who, 
for their seditious murmurs, had been mortally bitten by fiery serpents. 
A-fter compassing Edom and Moab, through which a passage was de- 
nied them, the children of Israel at last arrived and encamped in the 
plains of Moab, east of Jordan. Here Israel conquered the countries 



OUTLINE OP HEBREW HISTORY 



31 



of Sihon, king of the Amorites, and of Og, king of Bashan or Gilead ; 
and Moses divided the conquered territories among the tribes of Reu- 
ben and Gad, and the half tribe of Manasseh. He also caused 13,000 
men to ravage and lay waste Moab, whose daughters, by the 
Balaam. advice of Balaam, the soothsayer, had corrupted the sons of 
Israel. Balaam had been called from Mesopotamia, to curse 
Israel, with offers of great reward by Balak, king of Moab and Midian ; 
but, overruled by God, he blessed Israel altogether, and prophesied of 
their prosperity and of their future dominion over the nations. Balaam 
was slain with the kings of Midian in this war. 

Forty years having now elapsed since the exodus, Moses, after re- 
peating many lavi^s; inculcating, with paternal solicitude, his last advice 
and parting admonitions, and blessing each tribe except that of Simeon, 
went, by God's command, to the top of Pisgah, where he died, having 
thence viewed the land which he was not permitted to enter with his 
brethren. He was 120 years of age ; yet his eye was not dim, nor 
his natural force abated. Here ends the Pentateuch, or five 
Joshua!^ Books of Moses, containing the history of 2553 years from 

the creation. The book of Joshua commences here. 
After the death of Moses, none remained of all the men twenty years 
old and upwards, that were numbered at Sinai, except Joshua, of the 
tribe of Ephraim, and Caleb, of the tribe of Judah. Joshua 
2553 succeeding Moses in the command of the tribes of Israel, led 
Israel enters them across the Jordan, whose waters divided as the priests 
Land?"'''^'^ entered it with the ark, and continued divided till the ark was 
borne out by the priests, after the people had completed their 
passage. Twelve stones pitched in the channel' of the river, and twelve 
more taken out of the river, and pitched at Gilgal, long stood as a me- 
morial of this miraculous passage. Circumcision, which was first in- 
troduced by Abraham, one year before the birth of Isaac. waS' now 
renewed, after having been omitted forty years ; and the Passover was 
celebrated for the first time in the Land of Promise. Manna ceased to 
fall the next day after the celebration of the Passover 
Joshua. From Gilgal, which long continued the place of encamp- 
ment, Joshua led the armies of Israel against Jericho, whose 
Jericho. .^Yalls fell down at the blasts of the trumpets and shouts of the 
people, after having been several times encompassed by the armed men 
followed by priests, bearing trumpets of rams' horns, and the ark. All 
the inhabitants of Jericho were put to the sword, except the family of 
Rahab, who had faithfully concealed the spies sent there by Joshua, 
before he crossed the Jordan. In the first attack upon Ai, Israel was 
smitten and repulsed for the sin of Achan, who had taken of the ac- 
cursed thing in stealing and hiding several valuable articles that he 
found among the spoils ; but, after Achan was punished, Ai was taken 
by stratagem and destroyed. Soon after Joshua was called to defend 
the Gibeonites, whose ambassadors pretending to be from a far country, 
had artfully drawn him into a league. He defeated the five kings who 
attacked Gibeon ; and, that he might have sufficient time to make the 
destruction of his enemies complete, he commanded the sun 
Btlnds^stiii ^° s^^^^ still over Gibeon, and the moon over the valley of 
over Gibeon. Aijalon ; and thus the day was prolonged After destroying 



32 OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 

their armies, and hanging the five kings, who were found hidden in 
the cave of Makkedah, Joshua went against their cities of Jebus, Eglon, 
Jarmuth, Lachish, and Hebron, which he took and destroyed, except 
Jebus or Jerusalem, and soon subdued all the southern part of the land. 
Soon after he vanquished a hostile confederacy of the northern kings ; 
of whom Jabin,'king of Hazor, was the principal ; took their cities, and 
possessed himself of their country. 

After prosecuting his wars about six years from the death of Moses, 
Joshua had conquered thirty-one kings in Canaan ; and even then he 
left many native tribes unsubdued, that generally paid tribute to Israel, 
but continually seduced them into idolatrous practices, and often proved 
formidable enemies. In the seventh year, Joshua proceeded 
'^theTribS."^^'^ divide the conquered country, by lot, among the nine tribes 
and a half that remained to be provided for. It would seem 
that, at first, the tribes of Judah, Ephraim, and Manasseh, received for 
their allotments, all the country south of Galilee ; and that afterward, 
Benjamin, Simeon, and Dan, had thetr portions carved out of Judah and 
Ephraim. There was no tribe that bore the name of Joseph, but three 
allotments were made to his two sons, viz : — Manasseh, half tribe east 
of Jordan, and Ephraim and Manasseh, half tribe west of Jordan. 
There was no tribe of Levi, because his descendants were consecrated 
to the priesthood ; but they had forty-eight cities, called Levitical cities, 
appointed for their residence. Ephraim and Manasseh, the sons of 
Joseph, supplied the place among the tribes of Joseph and Levi, mak- 
ing the number twelve, equal to that of Jacob's sons. 

The tribes may be committed to memory in the following portions ; 
Reuben, Gad, Manasseh half tribe, east of Jordan, conquered and 
allotted by Moses: 

Pursuing the order of conquest, the next portion may be, Benjamin, 
Judah, Simeon, Dan, which constituted Judea under the Romans ; most 
of which also seems to have been comprised in the first allotment to 
Judah ; and conclusive arguments might be offered to show, that nearly 
all the territory included in these four tribes generally belonged to the 
successors of Solomon, after the dismemberment of the kingdom ; third 
portion, Ephraim and Manasseh half tribe, which, after the restora- 
tion of the Jews, constituted Samaria between Judea and Galilee ; 
fourth and last portion, Ashiir, Zebulon, Issachar, Naphtali, which 
constitutes Galilee. 

While the division of the country was going on, Joshua set up the 
tabernacle containing the ark, at Shiloh, in the tribe of 
"^fshlioh!" Ephraim, (where it continued 328 years, from 2560 to 2888,) 
in the first year of Samuel. Six Levitical cities were ap- 
pointed as places of refuge for the man-slayer, till he could be brought 
to a legal trial; Bezer, Ramoth-Gilead, and Golan, east of Jordan; 
Hebron, Shechem, and Kadesh, west of Jordan. Caleb, for his merit 
and valour, obtained Hebron in Judah, for his portion. To Joshua, 
the children of Israel gave Timnath-Serah in his own tribe of Ephraim. 
After the division of the land was completed, the two tribes and a half 
that had received their allotments, east of Jordan, were sent home with 
a blessing, having faithfully followed Joshua in his Vi^ars, as Moses re- 



OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 33 

quired, when he gave them their portions. Joshua died, aged 110, in 
2567, or, as some think, ten years later. 





JUDGES. 




Otiiniel, 


— _ 


Abdon. 


Ehud, 


Tola, 


— 


Shamgar. 


Jair, 


Eli, 





Jepthah. 


Samson,, 


Deborah, 


— 


Samuel, 


Gideon, 


Ibzon, 


— 


Abimelech. 


Elon, 





The book of Judges commences here. The 342 years from the 
death of Joshua to the reign of Saul, is called the period of 
2^^"^ the Judges ; but the greater part of it was a time of anarchy, 
" °^^' distraction, and wickedrjess, and of wretched subjection to 
idolatrous and revengeful neighbours, whose gods Israel worshipped, 
and whose kings they painfully served. There was not any regular 
succession of Judges ; but those so called, during this period, were 
usually persons providentially raised up by God to deliver his people 
from oppression. The idolatry ofMicah, and the removal of the Dan- 
ites to Laish, who on their way robbed Micah of his priest and gods, 
took place forty-five years after the death of Moses. Laish, at the head 
of Jordan, thence bore the name of Dan. About the same time, hap- 
pened the desolating war waged against the tribe of Benjamin, by all 
the other tribes, on account of the Levite's wife : by which all the peo- 
ple of Benjamin were killed, except 600 men, — See 5 last chapters of 
the book of Judges, which, in due order of time, should be read before 
the history of the several judges and servitudes. 

Because the children of Israel perversely served the gods of their 
idolatrous neighbours, the Lord sold them into the hands of 
bondage *^o the king of Mesopotamia, whom they served eight years. 
the j^'^^^P'' But when they cried unto the Lord, he raised up for their de- 
liverer Othniel, the nephew and son-in-law of Caleb. 
It is probable that during the greater part of this interval of eighty 
years, Israel was in a state of anarchy. During eighteen 
''^'"^'^j^g^"^''" years of it, they served Eglon, king of Moab, who took and 
possessed Jericho, the city of palm-trees; finally, Ehud, a 
Benjamite, being charged v/ith a present to Eglon, gained access to 
the king alone, in his summer-parlour, on a pretence of revealing a 
secret message, there stabbed him with a dagger, and delivered Israel. 
Twenty years Israel served Jabin, king of Hazor, who 
'^of Hafir"^ had 900 chariots of iron, Deborah and Barak, leading out 
10,000 men of Zebulon and Naphtali, defeated Jabin' s army ; 
upon which, Sisera, Jabin' s captain, took refuge in the tent of Heber, 
the Kenite, and was there, while fast asleep on the ground, killed by 
Jael, the wife of Heber, who drove a nail of the tent into his temples. 
The people resorted to Deborah, dwelling under her palm-tree, in 
Mount Ephraim, to be judged. 

5 



34 OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. 

Israel,, having served Midian seven years, was delivered 
^^ Si'"' by Gideon ; who, after reducing his army of 32,000 to 300 

by God's direction, surprised the camp of Midian at night, 
by his stratagem of trumpets and lamps concealed in pitchers, and so 
terrified the sleeping enemy with the sudden noise and clash, and in- 
stant blaze of light, that they wildly fled over Jordan, whither Gideon 
pursued and destroyed them. On his return he demolished Penueland 
Succoth, east of Jordan, and chastised the inhabitants with briars and 
thorns, because they had refused to relieve his army in pursuit of the 
Midianites. Gideon refused to rule over Israel, though the people 
offered him the authority. He left seventy sons, by several wives. 

Abimelech, one of his sons by a woman of Shechem, destroyed all 
his brethron but Jotham, the youngest, and was made king by the 
Shechemites. After reigning three years, he destroyed Shechem and 
sowed it with salt, because the people conspired against him. Soon 
after, in besieging Thebez, he was killed by a piece of mill-stone, 
which a woman cast upon his head. Tola judged Israel twenty-three 
years. 

During the greater part of Jair's twenty-two years, Israel was sorely 
oppressed by the Philistines, on th-e southwest, and the Ammonites, en 
the east. Jephthah, of Manasseh or Gilead, east of Jordan, delivered 
the eastern Israelites from the oppression of the Ammonites. On his 

return home, Jephthah sacrificed his daughter to fulfil an in- 
dau^htw. discreet vow — " If thou wilt deliver the Ammonites into mine 

hands, I will offer up for a burnt-offering, whatsoever cometh 
out of the door of my house to meet me." Some commentators con- 
tend that he only devoted his daughter to celibacy. The Ephraimites, 
offended that Jephthah did not ask their aid against the Ammonites, 
passed over Jordan to fight him. Jephthah having vanquished and 
dispersed them, seized the passes of Jordan to prevent their retreat; 
and whenever any man Avished to pass, the Gileadites discerned whe- 
ther he was an Ephraimite, by asking him to pronounce Shibboleth ; 
and, if he said Sibboleth, they slew him. 

Of Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, it is merely said that they judged Israel so 
many years respectively. 

Eli judged Israel forty years. He was high-priest in the line of 
Ithamar, the youngest son of Aaron, and was the first in that line, who 
ever bore the office. The high-priesthood, after descending in his 
family, through Ahitub, Ahimelech, and Abiathar, was restored by 
David to the line of Eleazer, in the person of Zadok. Phinehas, the son 
of Eleazer, was promised a perpetual priesthood in his line, for his 
Israel serves prompt and indignant punishment of the offenders in the 
the matter of Peor. — See Numbers, 25th. Israel served the 

Philistines during the whole time of Eli. 
The twenty years of Samson, coincide with the last twenty years of 
Eli. Samson is said to have judged Israel twenty years; but the de- 
tail of his history, represents him only as a champion against the Phi- 
listines, slaying his thousands, and otherwise afflicting his inveterate 
enemies by means of his matchless and miraculous strength. This 
extraordinary strength lay in his hair, which Avas consecrated by the 
law of the Nazarile. — See the law of the Nazarite, Numbers 6th. 



OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY. S5 

The following brief enumeration exhibits the principal 
Samson. achievements and adventures of Samson : — His marriage to 

a Philistine woman, of Timnath ; his slaying thirty m&a, of 
Askalon, and taking their raiment to perform the wager, which the 
Philistines had won of him, by drawing from his wife the meaning of 
his riddle; his resentment at finding his wife given by her father to 
another naan, displayed in setting fire to the cornfields, vineyards, and 
olive gardens of the Philistines, by fire-brands tied to the tails of three 
hundred foxes, which he caught for the purpose ; his being surrendered 
on one occasion, to the imperious and revengeful Philistines, by three 
thousand of his own servile and submissive countrymen; his escape 
from Gaza, bearing on his shoulders the gates of the city ; his unhappy 
love for the perfidious Delilah, and his great misfortune in being by her 
deprived of his hair and strength, while sleeping on her lap — upon 
which the Philistines took him, put out his eyes, and threw him into 
prison, bound in fetters of brass ; the recovery of his hair and strength, 
and finally his last exploit, in pulling down the house of tlie Philistine 
god, Dagon, and killing, together with himself, a vast multitude of 
Philistines assembled to make sport of him ; thus slaying more at his 
death than he had slain in his whole life. 

It seemed proper to arrange the chronology of Eli and Samson, be- 
fore leaving the book of Judges to enter upon that of Samuel. The 
history of Samuel blends with the histories of both Eli and Saul. The 
first chapter of the book of Samuel gives an account of his birth, in 
2S33, and of his early consecration to the Lord, by his mother Hannah, 
who placed him in the tabernacle, under the care of Eli. The second 
chapter relates the evil conduct of Eli's sons, and a prophecy against 
his family. The third chapter describes the vision that revealed to 
Samuel the destruction of Eli's family; Samuel then being a pupil of 
Eli, in the service of the tabernacle. The fourth chapter relates the 

disastrous overthrow of Israel by the Philistines, in two bat- 
take'the"ark. ^'^®' i" ^^e latter of whicli Eli's two sons fell, and the ark was 

taken which had been brought to the camp from Shiloh, in 
a vain presumption of its affording protection to sinful Israel. When 
Eli heard of the taking of the ark by the Philistines, and of the death 
of his two sons, Hophni and Phinehas, he fell from his chair and broke 
his neck. 

The Philistines of Ashdod, afflicted with disease by the presence of 
the ark, and seeing their god Dagon, twice fall down before it broken 
in pieces, sent it away to their city of Gath ; whose inhabitants, also as- 
sailed by disease, sent it to Ekron ; Avhence, for the same reason, the 
people sent it away to Bethshemesh, in Israel. Here 50,000 Israelites 
Avere smitten for looking into the ark, and the people removed 
it to Kirjath-jearim, where it remained until David had it taken to 
Jerusalem. 

During the righteous government of Samuel, vvho succeeded Eli, the 
Lord discomfited the Philistines with thunder, and the hand of the 
Lord was against them all the time that Samuel judged Israel. Though 
the conduct of Samuel himself had been upright, and beneficial to the 
nation ; yet, in consequence of the alleged disorderly and oppressive 
conduct of his sons, Joel and Abiah, in office under him, the people 



36 OUTLINE OF HEBREW HISTORY, 

assembled, and petitioned Samuel to make them a king to judge them, 
like all the nations. God was displeased at their thus rejecting his 
divine authority, but gave them a kmg in his wrath; and by his special 
directions, Samuel chose and anointed Saul, the son of Kish, 
„.'*^' a Benjamite, to rule over them. Saul's prompt and success- 
ful defence of Jabesh Gilead, east of Jordan, against the 
inhuman Nahash, king of the Ammonites, soon rendered him popular 
and completely established his authority. 



KINGS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH. 
Saul reigned 40^ They reigned over the whole land of Israel ; 
David " 40 > which, after the death of Solomon, was divided 
Solomon " 40 j into two kingdoms, viz : Judah and Israel ; 3029, 
The Philistines made repeated and vexatious inroads upon the land 
of Israel : but it is not easy to ascertain the precise time of many 
events that happened during Saul's reign of forty years. Chronologers 
usually fix Jonathan's victory over the Philistines in the eighth year of 
his father's reign ; Saul's expedition against the Amalekites, in the six- 
teenth year ; and the anointing of David at Bethlehem, in the thirtj'- 
second — 8, 16, 32, 40. For the siaful presumption of Saul, in assum- 
ing the priest's office, and sacrificing before the arrival of Samuel ; for 
his culpable adjuration of the people on the occasion of Jonathan's vic- 
tory, in saying, " Cursed be the man that eateth any food till evening; " 
but more particularly for his flagrant disobedience in sparing king 
Agag, and the best of the spoils, when Samuel had commanded him 
utterly to destroy the Amalekites, and all they possessed, God rejected 
him ; and Samuel, after hewing Agag in pieces, abandoned his rejected 
king, and went home to Ramah. 

Afterward God commanded Samuel to go to Bethlehem, in Judah, 

under a pretence of sacrificing there, and anoint David, son. 

anoints Da- of Jesse, to be king instead of Saul. Jesse descended by two 

■*'''!• generations from Boaz and Ruth, and Boaz was a descendant 

of Judah and Tamar. Reuben was the eldest son of Jacob ; Joseph 

was the favourite, and most worthy of the patriarchal succession. 

The priesthood was given to the descendants of Levi ; but the royal 

line was derived from Judah, the fourth son. David was of the tribe of 

Judah, and from the line of David descended Jesus Christ. 

It seems to have been soon after the anointing of David, that Saul, 

being informed of his superior skill in playing upon the harp, sent for 

him to play away his evil spirit ; and it was probably in the same year 

that David slew the gigantic Goliath, proud champion of the 

^GoiiaA.^^ Philistines. David's valiant deeds, and the popular praise 

that he received, excited the deadly envy and hatred of Saul. 

After giving David his daughter Michal in marriage, by which he 

hoped to ensnare him, Saul continually persecuted his son-in-law, and 

sought his life with the most unrelenting malice. 

While David remained with Saul, he several times very narrowly 
escaped being killed by the hands of his father-in-law, and, when he 
finally fled, he owed his escape to the faithful care and counsel of 



OUTLINE OP HEBREW HISTORY. 37 

Jonathan, Saul's son. After obtaining Goliath's sword of Ahimelech, 
the priest at Nob, and diverting the resentment of Achish, at Gath, by 
feigning himself mad, David retired to the cave of AduUum, in Judah, 
where his father's family came to him, and also great numbers of dis- 
tressed and disaffected people, who made him a captain over them. Be- 
cause Ahimelech, the priest, gave the sword of Goliath to David, Saul 
caused him to be killed, with all his family, except Abiathar, his son, 
who escaped to David. Driven from place to place by the persevering 
pursuit of Saul, David several times hardly escaped falling into his 
hands ; but twice he had the life of his pursuer in his power, and nobly 
spared him. 

At length David, with his two wive.s, Abigail and Abinoam, whom 

he had recently married, and his numerous followers, took 
refuge with refuge at Gath, with Achish, king of the Philistines. Dur- 
Piiiiistines ^"§^ residence at Ziklag, a place which Achish gave him, 

David signalized his valour against the Amalekites, and other 
idolatrous nations, pretending to Achish on his return that his enter- 
prises had been directed against Israel. The king put confidence in 
him, and intended to have his aid in the approaching battle with the 
Israelites ; but David was spared the trial either of disobliging his pro- 
tector, or of fighting against his own brethren, by the jealous interposi- 
tion of the Philistine princes, who feared that he would turn against 
them in the hour of battle. Samuel had now been dead two years, and 
his anointed son of Bethlehem seemed as far from the throne, as when 
he was first anointed, eight years before. But nothing could defeat the 
predestined elevation of David to the throne of Israel ; nothing could 

longer protract the doom and downfall of Saul, who derived 
"^'"'|j°^';^"'from the Witch of Endor, and the ghost of Samuel, nothing 

but the most dismaying confirmation of his foreboding fears. 
The Israelites were overcome at Gilboa, by the Philistines ; Jonathan 
was killed in battle, and Saul, wounded and despairing, fell upon his 
own sword. David lamented Saul and Jonathan in a song, and killed 
the Amalekite, who, bringing the tidings of Saul's death, hoped to 
recommend himself to David's favour, by pretending that he despatched 
the king. 

By God's direction, David went immediately to Hebron, 
^of'j'ud^h!^ where he was made king of Judah, and reigned seven years ; 

while Ishbosheth, a son of Saul, set up by Abner, reigned 
over the other tribes, and lived at Mahanaim, east of Jordan. During 
these seven years, David's power continually increased, till finally, Ish- 
bosheth was betrayed by Abner, and slain by his own captains. After 
the death of Ishbosheth, David was acknowledged king of the whole 

land of Israel, and reigned thirty-three years at Jerusalem, 
^an(i'isr'aeK''^^hich he took from the Jebusites, who seem to have held, till 

this time, the strong fortress of Zion. Within four or five 
years from this time, he subdued the Philistines, Amalekites, Edomites, 
Moabites, Midianites, and Syrians, and made an alliance with Toi, 

king of Hamath. It was in this interval, that he caused the 

^^^ ''to""*^' ^'■^ '° ^^ brought from Kirjath-jearim, and placed in a taber- 

Jerusaiem. nacle purposely prepared for it at Jerusalem. Michal, Saul's 

daughter, who had been restored to David by Abner, derided 



38 OUTLINE OP HEBREW HISTORY. 

the king for dancing before the ark, and was for that offence left in 
neg-Iect by her husband. David, remembering the kindness of Jona- 
than, sent for his son Mephibosheth, entertained him at his table, and 
gave iiim Saul's possessions. 

David having subdued all the surrounding nations, but the Ammo- 
nites ; finally made war upon them, because they insulted his ambas- 
sadors : and Joab, David's captain, overthrew the confederated forces 
of Ammonites and Syrians. He then laid siege to Rabbah, the capital 
of Ammon, whose inhabitants David cruelly tortured after the city was 
taken. At this siege, David caused Uriah to be killed, and shortly 
after married Bathsheba, Uriah's widow, in the twentieth year of his 

reign, 2969, Two years after, Solomon was born, the second 
Solomon. son of David by Bathsheba. The next year after the birth of 

Solomon, Amnon, a son of David, provoked the mortal en- 
mity of his half-brother Absalom, by his cruel and unnatural treatment 
of Tamar, Absalom's full sister. Two years afterward, Absalom, to 
avenge his sister Tamar, invited Amnon to a feast, perfidiously killed 
him, and fled to his grandfather Talmai, king of Geshur, where he 
lived three years, till David recalled him by the persuasion of Joab. 
David did not admit Absalom into his presence until two years after his 
return to Jerusalem. During the next two years, Absalom artfully and 

assiduously studied to conciliate the favour and affection of 
bei°ion!'^'' the people ; then going to Bethlehem, under a pretence of 

sacrificing, he collected an army, by the advice of the traitor 
Ahithophel, rebelled again'st his father, drove him from Jerusalem, and 
pursued him over Jordan. Here a battle took place, in which Absalom 
was defeated by Joab, who pursued and despatched the rebel son, to 
the great grief of David, and contrary to his express commands. Two 
years before his death, David's people were visited by a destructive pes- 
tilence, inflicted as a chastisement for his sinful vanity in numbering 
the people by the temptation of Satan. — See 1 Chronicles, 21st chapter. 

In the last year of David's reign, Adonijah, one of his sons, . 
'Inen'i'pted ^°°^ advantage of the feeble and declining state of his father's 
usurpation, health, to make himself king, by the assistance of Jcab, and 

Abiathar, the priest ; but David caused Solomon to be anoint- 
ed by Nathan, the prophet, and Zadok, a priest of the line of Eleazer. 
Alter the death of David, Joab and Adonijah were put to death by 
Solomon ; Abiathar was deposed, and Zadak received the priesthood, 
which seems to have been divided between them during the reign of 
David- David died, aged 70, in 2989. He committed great faults 
during his reign, for which he was deeply penitent. 

Solomon transcended all the kings of Israel in power, 
mon!*' magnificence, glory, and wisdom. David was not permitted 

to build the temple of the Lord, because he was a man of 
war and blood ; but Solomon enjoyed a peaceful reign over the exten- 
sive dominions left him by his father, and in the fourth year of his 

reign he commenced the building of the temple. Hiram, 
3000 \iing of Tyre, furnished him skilful artificers, and the cedars 
VuUt.^'* of Lebanon. He had 70,000 men employed to bear burthens, 

and 80,000 hewers in the mountains, besides 3,300 officers 
to oversea the workmen. The length of the temple was 60 cubits, 



HISTORY OF THE KINGS OF ISRAEL, 



39 



its breadth 20, and its height 30. It was finished and dedicated with 
great ceremony in the eleventh year of Solomon's reign in 3000. 
Solomon also built two magnificent palaces, one for himself, and an- 
other for his queen, the daughter of Pharaoh king of Egypt. He im- 
posed heavy burthens on his people, to meet his immense expenditures, 
but he, as well as David, derived vast riches and treasures from the 
traffic of the Red Sea, where they possessed a port and a fleet after the 
conquest of Edom. Solomon died in 3029. 



History of the Kings of Israel. 



KINGS OF ISRAEL. 



Jeroboabi. 


Ahab. 


Zachiriah, 


Nadab. 


Ahaziah. 


— 


— 


Jehoram. 


Shallxjm. 


Baasha. 


— 


— 


Elah. 


Jehu. 


Menahem. 


— 


Jehoaaz. 


Pekahiah. 


ZiMRI. 


Jo ASH. 


Pekah. 


— 


Jeroboabi 2d, 


HOSEA. 


Omri. 







The kingdom of David and Solomon included all the twelve tribes 

of Israel, and most of the adjoining countries ; but God declared in 

the time of Solomon that his kingdom should be divided, and that only 

two tribes should remain faithful to his son Rehoboam. Solo- 

Rehoboam, ncion's sin in introducing a corrupt and idolatrous worship bv 

KingofJu- ^ ■ n r ^ ■ , ■ iii-ii^--^ 

dah. the mfluence oi his strange wives, provoked this declaration 

of God's judgment. In his vain presumption, the son of 
Solomon rejected the advice of the old men, and listening to the young 
men, spurned the humble petition of his subjects, who prayed for a 
reduction of the heavy taxes imposed by his father. The 
3029 harsh and reproachful answer of the young king drove into 
^Totrfbesl"^ immediate revolt the ten northern and eastern tribes, which 
from that time constituted a separate kingdom, called Israel. 
The two tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained faithful to the line 
of David, and were called the kingdom of Judah. After this event the 
kings of Syria maintained their complete independence, and often made 
destructive inroads into the kingdom of Israel. The Ammonites and 
Moabites submitted to the kings of Israel ; but the Philistines and 
Edomites remained subject to Rehoboam, king of Judah. The boun- 
daries between the kingdoms of Judah and Israel did not invariably 
remain the same, but occasionally changed with the vicissitudes of 
power incident to the almost incessant wars that raged between the 
two rival nations. There is reason to believe that Simeon and a part 
of Dan were early incorporated with the kingdom of Judah. 



40 HISTORY OP THE KINGS OP ISRAEL. 

Jeroboam was an officer under Solomon, when Ahijah the 
kYo'" of" prophet declared to him God's purpose to divide the king- 
Israei. dom, and Jeroboam being expressly named by the prophet as 

the future king of the ten tribes, was obliged to flee from 
the presence of Solomon into Egypt, whence he returned after the 
death of his offended king, and was made king of the dismembered 
tribes. The history of the kings of Israel exhibits a uniformly dis- 
gusting picture of wickedness and idolatry, scarcely exceeded in later 
times by the degenerate successors of Alexander and Augustus. Jero- 
boam at first made Shechem his capital, which he rebuilt 258 years 
after it was destroyed byAbimelech; but he afterwards resided at 
Tirzah. To prevent his people from going to Jerusalem to worship, 
he set up two golden calves for them to serve ; one at Bethel, 
°^^' on his south border, the other at Dan, on his north border. 
He made priests of the lowest of the people, and cast off the Levites, 
who all flocked to Jerusalem, and strengthened Rehoboam. He made 
altars, groves, and high places for idolatrous worship, and impiously 
exercised the priest's office himself See 1 Kings, chapters xii. 
and xiii. 

Nadab Nadab, the son and successor of Jeroboam, imitated all the 

perverse and idolatrous practices of his father. After a short 
Baash Career of folly and wickedness, he was cut off by the traitor 

Baasha, who, having killed his king, usurped the vacant 
throne, and destroyed the whole family of Jeroboam, thereby fulfilling 
the prediction of Ahijah the prophet. See 1 Kings, chapters xii. and 
xiii. Baasha and his family, by following all the flagitious sins of 
Jeroboam, provoked a similar prophecy, and experienced the same 
fate. Elah, the son of Baasha, was killed by Zimri, one of his 
captains, who also destroyed the whole family of Baasha and 
Elah, and seized the reins of government; by which was fulfilled the 
prophecy of Jehu. Omri, another captain of Elah, who was absent 
. with the army, hearing that Elah was killed, and Zimri, his 

murderer, upon the throne, returned and besieged the usurp- 
er in Tirzah. After a short siege, Zimri, finding that his rival would 
prevail, set fire to the palace, and perished in the flames. Omri sup- 
ported his pretensions to the throne, and reigned about twelve 
years, though a part of the nation followed Tibni, another 
competitor. In the sixth year of his reign, Omri built Samaria, on the 
borders of Ephraim and Manasseh, and made his new city the perma- 
nent capital of the kingdom. 

Three kings of Israel descended from Omri : Ahab, Aha- 
ziah, and Jehoram. Ahab married the infamous Jezebel, 
Jezebel his daughter of the king of Tyre, and surpassed all the other 
queen! kings of Israel in idolatry, corruption, wickedness, and 
cruelty. By the influence of his Tyrian queen, he introduc- 
ed into Israel the idolatrous priests and altars, and the false gods of 
Tyre. Elijah the prophet, having denounced a grievous 
'^^ ' drought and famine, fled from the presence and pursuit of 

Ahab: but after concealing himself three years at the brook Cherith, 
and vvith the poor woman at Zarephath, he returned to the enraged 
king, and caused him to assemble all Israel, and the nine hundred and 



HISTORY OF THE KINGS OF ISRAEL. 41 

fifty false prophets of Jezebel, at Mount Carrael. The assembled peo- 
ple, seeing that the false prophets could not call down fire from heaven 
to consume their sacrifices, as Elijah did, fell upon them in a rage and 
slew them. Then, at the prayer of Elijah, a plentiful shower of rain 
descended upon the whole land. Elijah having soon after fled into the 
wilderness from the fury of Jezebel, was commanded by God to return 
and anoint Elisha for his successor. 

Ahab was twice reduced to great distress by Benhadad, 
Samaria, king of Syria, who besieged Samaria with immense armies ; 
but God gave Israel strength, and victory, in both instances, 
and they slew an hundred thousand Syrians. 

Naboth, of Jezreel, having refused to sell Ahab his vineyard, Jeze- 
bel caused him to be stoned "to death, upon the accusation of false wit- 
nesses. For this horrid deed, Elijah appeared, and denounced the 
utter extinction of the whole family of Ahab. 

Trusting to the false prophets, and spurning the admonitions of Mi- 
caiah, a true prophet, Ahab, accompanied by Jehoshaphat, king of 
Judah, led his armies against the king of Syria, then at Ramoth-Gi- 
lead, east of Jordan. Notwithstanding his cowardly precautions, in 
leaving off" his royal robes when the hostile armies engaged, " a cer- 
tain man drew a bow at a venture, and killed him." 

Ahaziah, the son of Ahah, lying dangerously sick of a fall, 
sent to consult Baalzebub, the godof Ekron, concerning his 
recovery, Elijah met the messengers, and told them that the king should 
surely die. Two companies of fifty men, successively, sent bv the 
king to take Elijah, were consumed by fire irom heaven ; but the cap- 
tain of the third company, entreating for his life, was spared by the 
prophet, who voluntarily went witii him to the king, and told him that 
Jehoram ^® must die. Ahaziali was succeeded by his brother Jeho- 
ram, the last of his race who filled the throne of Israel. It 
seems to have been soon after the death of Ahaziah, that Elijah was 
taken up to heaven in a chariot of fire, leaving his mantle and his pro- 
Elisha phetic office to Elisha. See in 2 Kings, an account of the 

anointing of Hazael by Elisha, to be king of Syria, instead 
of Benhadad. 

See in 2 Kings, the latter part of the eighth, and the whole of the 
ninth chapter, 'the account of a joint expedition of Jehoram, king of 
Israel, and Ahaziah, king of Judah, against Hazael, the new king of 
Syria, then at Rarooth-Gilead, Jehoram having retired from the army 
to Jezreel to be cured of a wound that he had received in battle, was 
visited there soon after by Ahaziah. In the absence of the two kings 
from the army, Jehu, one of Jehoram's captains, was anoint- 
ed king, ed king by the direction of Elisha, and being acknowledged 
kWs'^the kin^s ^y ^^^ army, he proceeded in great haste to Jezreel, where 
of Judah and he killed the two kings, and destroyed the whole family of 

Israel, ^.hab, according to the prophecy of Elijah. Wicked Jeze- 
bel, immediately after the death of her son Jehoram, was cast out of 
a window and devoured by dogs. Jehu established himself on the 
throne of Israel by destroying all the family of Ahab, and all the priests 
of Baal, that had been maintained by this wicked family. But Jehu 
practised all the sins of Jeroboam the first. During the reign of Jeho- 

6 



42 



HISTORY OP THE KINGS OF JUDAH, 



ahaz, the son of Jehu, Israel suffered greatlj' from the inroads of Ha- 
zael, king of S^a'ia, who took all the country east of Jordan ; but Joash. 
the son of Jehoahaz, recovered what his father had lost, and vanquished 
Benhadad, the son of Hazael, three times. Elisha, in his dying mo- 
ments, had promised Joash these three victories. Jeroboam II. the son 
of Joash, pursued his father's success, and even took Hamalh, in Syria, 
and Damascus, the capital. Zechariah, the last of the family of Jehu, 
was killed by Shallum, who, after reigning one month, was, in his turn, 
killed by Menahera. Menahem exacted large sums of money from 
. . his subjects, to purchase the forbearance and retreat of Pul, 
vasionTirthe king of Assyria, who invaded Israel. Pekahiah, the son of 
Lhfm?*^^^^"" Menahem, was killed by Pekah, one of his captains. Pekah 
was killed by Plosea, with whom the kingdom ended. The 
particulars of the reigns of Pekah, and Hosea, will be related in con- 
nexion with the history of Judah. 



History of the Kings of Judah. 





KINGS OF JUDAH. 




Rehoboam. 


Athaliah. 


Manasseh. 


— 


— 


Amon. 


Abijah. 


Joash. 


— 


Asa. 


Amaziah. 


Josiah. 


— 


AZARIAH. 


Jehoahas. 


Jehoshaphat. 


JOTHAM. 


JOHOIAKIM, 


Jehoram. 





Jehoiakin. 


— 


Ahaz. 


— ■ 


Ahaziah. 


Hezekiah. 


Zedekiah, 



The people of Israel were afflicted with great national calamities for 
the sins of David and Solomon ; but those eminent personages redeem- 
ed their characters and their people, by sincere penitence and general 
piety. Unfortunately, the majority of their royal descendants were 
gross and impenhent transgressors, who brought a long train of woe 
upon their people, and finally drew down ruin and captivity upon their 
devoted country. Asa, Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, and Josiah, sustain 
exalted characters in the sacred annals; but their pious efforts were 
exerted in vain to reform the abuses and corruptions which nearly all 
the other descendants of Solomon openly practised and encouraged. 
Rehoboam not only imitated his father's sins, but shamefully multi- 
plied the objects and forms of idolatry. To punish him, and his infatu- 
ated people, God permitted Shishak, (by some supposed to be 
nd^ ra'^uie ^^^ Celebrated Sesostris,) king of Egypt, to invade the land 
temple, of Judah, break into Jerusalem, and plunder the holy temple. 
Abijah, the son of Rehoboam, had signal success in his war 
with Jeroboam, king of Israel ; but he imitated, and even exceeded, the 
idolatry of his father. 



HISTORY OP THE KINGS OP JUDAH. 43 

Asa was a pious and sfood kins-; he abolished many cor- 

Thegood . '^ , ^ • .1" t 11 1 1 • 

king A=a. riipt practices; and, trusung"in the JLord, he repulsed an im- 
mense army of Ethiopians. But in a later period of his reign, 
he made an. unhallowed alliance with Benhadad, king of Syria, against 
Baasha, king of Israel, instead of seeking the protection of the Lord. 
Jehoshaphat surpassed his father, Asa, in his measures of reform. He 
caused the laws of Moses to be taught throughout his dominions, and 
made his authority to be respected, both at home and abroad. But 
he was reproved for joining Ahab in his fatal expedition to Ramoth- 
Gilead; he lost his fleet on the Red Sea, for admitting Ahab's son, 
Ahaziah, to have a concern in it; and he improperly suffered his son 
Jehoram to marry Athaliah, the daughter of wicked Ahab and Jezebel. 
Jehoram, on his father's death, put all his own brothers and several 
other princes to death. By the influence of his infamous queen, Atha- 
liah, he practised every species of cruelty and abomination. He was 
punished by the revolt of Edom, and the consequent loss of 
Edom? the port and traffic on the Red Sea. Fie spent the last two 
years of his life in great torment, and at last literally fell to 
pieces, and died from the effects of painful and protracted disease. An 
account has already been given of the death of Jehoram's son, Aha- 
ziah, who was killed by Jehu. Q,ueen Athaliah survived her husband, 
Jehoram, and her son, Ahaziah, ascended the vacant throne on the 
death of the latter, and murdered all the sons of Ahaziah, except Joash, 
an infant, who was saved by the high priest, and concealed in the tem- 
ple six years. At the end of that time, the high priest anointed Joash, 
aged seven years, and presented him to the people, who, attracting 
Athaliah to the temple by their shouts, fell upon her, and slew her. 
The reader is referred to Chronicles for the short history, and mixed 
or indifTerent characters of the four next kings. 

Early in the reign of Ahaz, the land of Judah was.invad- 
Ahaz buys g(] q^^ ravaged by Syrians, Israelites, Philistines, and Am- 

liic (lid or iJie . ^.•'.•^ . ' .. 

Assyrian monites. In his distress, the wicked king applied for relief 
thR^invnd'iTi^^ ^° Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, whose aid he ignobly 
Syrians wuii and impiously purchased with the sacred treasures of the 
^^%^ures.' ^ lioly temple. The Assyrian monarch first marched his ar- 
mies into Syria, took Damascus, the capital, slew Rezin 
the king, sent the people captive into Assyria, and put an end to the 
kingdom of Syria. H.e then overrun the four northern and three east- 
ern tribes of Israel, and sent the people into captivity. Hosea, w^ho 
murdered and succeeded Pekah in Israel, submitted for a while to 
Shalmanezer, the son of Tiglath-Pileser; but at length, impatient of 
tribute and dependence, he entered into an alliance with So, or Sabacon, 
king of Egypt, and thus completed the ruin of his little kingdom, 
which had already been reduced to two tribes, in the time of Pekah. 
To punish Hosea for his defection, Shalmanezer entered his kingdom 
with an army, and besieged Samaria, the capital. After a siege of 
three years, Shalmanezer took the city, sent all the people 
3283 left by Tiglath-Pileser into captivity beyond the Euphrates, 
"ivity.'' and repeopledthe country wdth Assyrians. This is the com- 
pletion of what is called the first captivity, or captivity of the 
ten tribes, in 3283. 



44 HISTORY OF THE KINGS OP JUDAH. 

While Shalmanezer was prosecuting the siege of Samaria, 
The^good Hezeklali, the worthy son of wicked Ahaz, was employed in 
Hezekiah. reforming the religion, and improving the state of his king- 
dom ; and during his whole reign, the Assyrian monarch 
was too much occupied with othei projects lo disturb these pious and 
patriotic labours. It was reserved for the wild and furious Sennache- 
rib to interrupt for a while the tranquillity of Judah, and by outrages 
and blasphemies, to provoke the venge;mce of heaven upon himself and 
his devoted army. All the busy preparations and precautions of He- 
zekiah, seemed impotent and vair. ; the vast sums that he had paid 
to the greedy invader failed to satisfy him; the expected relief from 
the Ethiopian Tirhahah, (afterward king of Egypt) produced nothing 
but disappointment: but when all seemed lost, the promises and pro- 
phecies of Isaiah were fulfilled by a single blow of the destroying an-^ 
gel, which killed a hundred and eighty-five thousand of the 
ofs'ramlche- -^^syrian army, and left Sennacherib to return home, covered 
rib. with sharne and confusion, where he was assassinated by his 

own sons. It is necessary to read Isaiah, in addition to 
Kings and Chronicles, to get a complete account of Ahaz and Heze- 
kiah. 

Could Flezekiah have foreseen the infatuation of future kings, and 
the early depravity and disgraceful captivity of his son Manasseh, he 
might have forgotten to deplore the misdeeds of a father, in the over- 
whelming prospect of future shame and misfortune. After the cap- 
tivity of Manasseh, by the Assyrian Esarhaddon, Judah seems to have 
been dependent on the Assyrian, or Babylonish kings, till the final 
destruction of Jerusalem. Amon was a wicked and idolatrous prince, 
but his son Josiah laboured with great zeal to root out idolatry, and 
restore the purity of religious worship. In the last year of his life, 
Josiah went out to oppose Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, who was 
passing through his territories against the king of Babylon.' In the 
battle that took place, the good king was killed by an archer. On the 
death of Josiah, the people made Jehoahaz, his youngest son, king. 
But when Pharaoh Necho returned from the Euphrates, he deposed 
Jehoahaz, after he had reigned three months, and set up Jehoiakim, 
Jeremiah. Josiah's eldest SOU, for king, Jeremiah, who began to pro- 
phesy in the time of Josiah, in vain denounced the wicked 
course of all the kings that reigned in Judah aller that pious monarch. 
For his bold admonitions he was frequently arraigned, and for a long 
time kept shut up in prison. 

Two years before his death, Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, sent 
his son and associate Nebuchadnezzar, with an army into Judah. 
„ While besieging Jerusalem, the Babylonish king took Je- 

nezzar exacts hoiakim prisoner, and bound him in fetters, with an intention 
^'jehoiaidm'" ^° Carry him to Babylon, but restored him to the throne on 
his humbling himself, and submitting to tribute. Nebuchad-r 
nezzar, on this occasion, caused a selection to be made of royal and 
noble youths, of the fairest countenance and brightest parts, and sent 
Daniel. them to Babylon. Daniel was among these captives; and 
2d captivity, j^ere commenced the second captivity, in 3398. 



HISTORY OF THE KINGS OP JUDAH. 45 

After submitting several years, Jehoiakim rebelled against 
Rebels.'" Nebuchadnezzar, who immediately sent his armies to reduce 

him to obedience. The war had been conducted about three 
years, when Jehoiachin, or Jechoniah, became king by the death of his 
father. The new king, after reigning three months, came out of the 
city, accompanied by his mother and his princes, and surrendered to 
Zedekiah ^^^ king of Babylon, who made Zedekiah, a son of Josiah, 
made king, king, and Sent a great number of people captive to Babylon. 
Ezekiei. Ezekiel, who was one of the captives, always dates from the 
captivity of Jehoiachin. Jeremiah, knowing that the Jews must re- 
main in captivity seventy years, wrote a letter to the Jews at Babylon, 
admonishing them not to believe the dreams of the lying prophets, who 
foretold the speedy restoration of Jehoiachin and his captive people; 
and the prophet enjoined them to settle down quietly till the expiration 
of the seventy years. He also exhorted Zedekiah and the neighbour- 
ing princes, to submit to the king of Babylon, and threatened them 
with terrible calamities if they rebelled. 

In the ninth year of Zedekiah, the king of Babylon learning that he 
had entered into a league with the king of Egypt, advanced with a 

great army into Judah, took many cities, and besieged Jeru- 
besieged'" salem. Jeremiah was shut up in the court of the prison for 

advising the king and people to submit ; yet he persisted in 
giving the same advice, even after Nebuchadnezzar had raised the 
siege to defend himself against the king of Egypt; and the prophet 
boldly declared that the king of Egypt would afford no relief, and that 
the king of Babylon would certainly return to the siege, and take both 
the city and the king. King Zedekiah frequently consulted this pro- 
phet while in prison concerning the event of the war, and uniformly 
received for answer, that he must submit to the king of Babylon, or 
abide the most awful consequences of his obstinacy. Finally, Zede- 
kiah seeing that the Babylonians had made a breach in the wall of the 
city, fled in the night, but was pursued by the enemy, overtaken in the 
plains of Jericho, and carried to Nebuchadnezzar, then at Riblah, in 
Syria. There, after seeing all his sons and all his princes killed, his eyes 
Zedekiah Were put out, and he was sent to Babylon, where he shortly 
dies at Baby- after died. The Babylonians having entered Jerusalem, and 

broken down the walls, proceeded to burn the temple, the 
3416 king's palace, and all the houses in the city. All the people 
o/^Jerusa" Were Carried captive to Babylon, except the poorer sort, who 
com' letfon ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ Cultivate the vineyards and the fields, under the 
of the 2nd direction of Gedaliah, a Jew, whom Nebuchadnezzar appoint- 
capuvity. g^ governor of the land. Jeremiah chose to remain in his 
own country, though he had the offer of enjoying at Babylon the 
friendship of Nebuchadnezzar. Gedaliah having been treacherously 
killed shortly after his appointment, the people fled into Egypt, fearing 
the resentment of the king of Babylon. Jeremiah assured them that 
they would suffer no injury if they remained v/here they were ; but 
if they went to Egypt, the sword which they feared would overtake 
them there; for he foresaw and foretold that Nebuchadnezzar would 
conquer Egypt. The people compelled the prophet, contrary to his 
wishes, to accompany them into Egypt, where it is known that he re- 



46 HISTORY OF EGYPT. 

mained a considerable time; but the time and place of his death are 
not known. The destruction of Jerusalem, and desolation of Judah, 
in 3410, was the completion of the second captivity; but the com- 
mencement of the seventy years captivity was in 339S, when Daniel 
was taken. 

The rich and commercial city of Tyre, had in early times main- 
tained the most friendly relations with David and Solomon ; but in the 
declining" days of the Je^vish kingdom, the Tyrians exulted over the 
calamities of God's people, and thereby ensured those terrible denunci- 
ations proclaimed by the prophet Ezelnel, and executed by Nebuchad- 
nezzar. But the reduction of Tyre cost the king of Babylon the per- 
severinsf efforts of thirteen years ; and when at last the greedy Baby- 
lonians entered the place — behold! a new city grown up on an island, 
half a mile distant from the shore, to which the people had removed 
with their effecis, leaving the conquerors to wreak their vengeance on 
empty walls. But this wretched pay for men whose " every head was 
bald, and every shoulder peeled," was soon made good by a successful 
expedition into Egypt, which was overrun, wasted, and plundered, by 
the armies of Nebuchadnezzar, as had been .prophecied by Jeremiah 
and Ezekiel. For further particulars relating to Nebuchadnezzar, the 
reader is referred to Kings, Chronicles, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Dan- 
iel. On his death his son. Evil Merodach, released king Jehoiachin 
from prison, and paid him great respect, as head of the captivity, and 
nominal prince of the Jews at Babylon. 



HistGry of Egypt to A.M. 3500. 

EGYPT. 

In Egypt the wonderful structures raised by human art and ser- 
vile hands, attest the early power and despotism, as well as the empty 
-vanity of its kings ; and these towering wonders, no less than the num- 
ber and extent of its cities, proclaim the immensity of its population, and 
strongly incline us to lament ihe obscurity of its early history. No re- 
solution can overcome the utter aversion of the mind to the dry and 
barren chronicles of this wonderful country. We are not easily recon- 
ciled to names and sounds that grate harshly on the ear, even when 
they represent objects of interest; and this difficulty is increased in ten- 
fold proportion, when these barbarous and uncouth names denote in- 
significant individuals, or persons whose history is uncertain or 
unknown. A single glance at the lono- list of one hundred and thirty- 
nine pretended kings of Egypt, is sufficient to dishearten the most re- 
solute learner, who has any other object than to try his organic skill 
in uttering strange and awkward combinations of sounds. The name 
and fameof Sesostris, might afford a pleasing exception, if historians 
could determine within five hundred years when that renowned con- 
queror broke loose from Egypt, overrun Asia and Europe, and even 
marched triumphantly over the wide domain of some ancient Assyrian 
lord. 



HISTORY OFEGYPT. 47 

From the earliest ages there had been four kingdoms in Egypt, viz : 
Heliopolis or Lower Egypt, Thebes or Upper Egypt, and This and 
Memphis between them, till, in 2326, Nitocris, queen of Memphis, 
united This and Thebes to her dominions. 

Profane historians tell us, that about fifteen years before the death 
of Joseph, the Shepherd kings — adventurers from Arabia — con- 
quered Heliopolis, or Lower Egypt, and reigned at Tanis, till the 
race was expelled, 2784. The Old Testament gives the history of 
Egypt, only so far as it is connected with the Jewish history. After 
the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, they appear to 

3000 have held little intercourse with that country, till the reign of 
o onion. Solomon. From this period there is some slight connexion 
between the histories of the two countries, and some notice is taken 
of Egyptian affairs in the Scriptures. 

From Psammetichus to Alexander, three hundred years, we obtain 

considerable information from the Jewish visiters. This is the time 

when the swords of Egypt and Assyria clashed over the heads of the 

Israelites. During the reign of Apries, (the Pharaoh Hophrah 

3400 of Scripture,) extended plans of conquest were formed, partly 
HoSirah. against Asia, partly against Cyrene, in Africa. The event, 
proving unsuccessful, occasioned a rebellion among the Egyp- 
tians, who were generally opposed to foreign wars. A civil war 
ensued, in which Apries loses his throne and life ; and with' him, the 
dynasty of Psammetichus ended. 

There was much intercourse between the Greeks and the Egyptians 
in this age ; many of the former settled in Egypt ; many visited it as 
travellers — among whom were Pythagoras and Herodotus. Egypt is 
full of wonders when authentic history commences — wonders of me- 
chanic arts, monuments of labour, ingenuity, and expense. Who exe- 
cuted them, no one can tell. 

The world is full of disputes concerning the literature of Egypt. It 
had no learning in the common sense of the word ; no hoohs ; no authors^ 
not even scraps for Pythagoras and Herodotus to examine; no histor3% 
except the juggling fables made up by their priests, who could not read 
the inscriptions on their own pyramids and temples. Herodotus tries 
to believe all, and make something out of his visit, but it amounts to 
little. 

3478 Egypt was conquered by Cambyses, 3478, and remained 
Cambyses. g-j^ject to Persia at 3500. 



KINGS OF ASSYEIA. 

PuL. Sennacherib. 

Sardanapalus. Esarhaddon. 

Tiglath-Pileser. Nebuchadnezzar, 1st, 

Shalmanezer. Saracus. 

KINGS OF BABYLON. 

Nabopolassar, Evil Merodach, 

Nebuchadnezzar, Belshazzar. 



48 HISTORY OF EGYPT. 



General remarTis relating to the Assyrian Empire. 

Profane historians usually attribute a great extent and duration to 

the first Assyrian Enripire, of which Sardanapalus is said to have been 

the last king. Some authors have condescended to offer a list of the 

names of about forty mute monarchs ; whose story, if they ever lived or 

reigned, has not been told. In relation to this subject, we 

Foundation may remark, that authentic history ascertains the early ex- 

an^'^^Empire istence of a great empire, in the west of Asia, which had 

uncertain, fli-gt Nineveh for its capital, and afterward Babylon ; and 

which was finally overthrown by Cyrus, the Persian. Of 

the commencement, duration, extent, or power, of the first Assyrian 

Empire, we have no authentic records to inform us. Some make 

Nimrod, others Belus, and others again Ninus, the founder of this 

empire ; but they differ widely in fixing the date of its foundation. It 

is vain to seek either for the foundfer, or the time of its foundation. 

It is reasonable to suppose, that there were many petty kingdoms, 

but no great consolidated empire in the west of Asia, till after the time 

of David and Solomon ; perhaps not till the time of Tiglath- 

Limitedin pijeser, and his successors. Yet historians vainly attribute 

extent before tvt- i ri ■ • • • j 

the time of to Ninus and Semiramis vast power, immense armies, and 
h!mon*'^° distant conquests; and this was before the time of Abraham, 
according to their chronology, and not four centuries after the 
flood. Before we ascribe a vast population to the countries about the 
Euphrates, at so early a period, we should recollect that those countries 
must have been continualljr drained to people other regions. There 
were cities in the time of Abraham, but those cities were small ; there 
were kingdoms, but those kingdoms were insignificant. We read in 
Genesis, that four eastern kings advanced against the petty kings of 
Canaan, and overthrew them ; but Abraham, with his servants, and a 
few neighbours, pursued and vanquished the four eastern kings in their 
retreat. 

It is evident, from the histories of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, that 
people were thinly scattered over the western regions of Asia in their 
time. The power of David and Solomon probably exceeded that of 
any king that had ever reigned before in any of the countries of Asia. 
The Israelites often bowed down under the oppression of petty neigh- 
bours ; but so far from having been disturbed by any great neighbour- 
ing monarchy, they never had occasion even to mention such a one in 
their annals, till about 3250. 

Such as would mount high up the stream of time in search of won- 
ders, may find ample scope for their imaginations in the thirteen or 
fourteen centuries, attributed to the duration of this fabulous empire. 
Happily but few fables have as yet been invented for this dark inter- 
val, though a long list of insignificant names have been found or in- 
vented for a race of real or supposed kings. Commencing in the 
eighteenth, nineteenth, or twentieth century after the creation, as choice 
or caprice directs, the imagination may roam unclogged by tiresome 
realities, over a spacious wilderness of twelve, thirteen, or fourteen cen- 
turies. Without any new effort of imagination, the actual or sup- 



H I S T O R Y P A S S YR I A , 49 

Niniisand posed conquest of the Assyrian Ninus, and the mote brilliant 

Semiramis. ^ , . ^ . . , •-. , , 

exploits 01 Semiramis, his renowned queen and successor, 
might for a moment dispel the gloom of silence and solitude, and shed 
a transient lustre over this dreary waste. The immense cities which 
these two celebrated monai'chs are said to have built, embellished, or 
enlarged, might cheer the dull obscure age whose annals have not 
reached us, and beautify a region just desolated by a destroying deluge, 
and continually drained to supply population to distant countries. The 
vast armies and conquering hosts which our hero and heroine con- 
ducted to the borders of Ethiopia, or beyond the remote banks of the 
Indus, gloriously illustrate the valour of Abraham, who, with his own 
household, vanquished the confederated forces of the kings of Assyria, 
Chaldea, Persia, &c.; and this was after the supposed time of Ninus 
and his valiant queen. 

After taking leave of Ninus and Semiramis, we may smile at the 
sullen silence of the forty kings of Ctesias or Eusebius, distributed 
through twelve centuries, and whose empty names form the barren his- 
torj'' of their empire ; but a generous feast of fiction awaits us in the 
palace of his most effeminate and degenerate majesty Sarda- 
Sardanapaius. napalus, who, Ave are told, spun at the distaff with his women ; 
and finally, in a fit of despair, consumed himself and all his 
spinning sisters in the flames of his palace; thus nobly spinning out 
his days and his race, to escape a more cruel fate from the hand of 
an enemy, who beset his capital, and dismembered his kingdom. After 
this catastrophe our history may assume a graver tone. 

Though it will still be impossible to separate fiction from facts, or 
ascertain the precise dates of real transactions, yet, from the 
3257 commencement of Tiglath-Pileser, in 3257, the grand revolu- 
Facts better tJon of empire can be tra :ed ; and these revolutions assume 
' an interest and importance that cannot be despised. 
We will forbear attempting to decide which of the two, Pul or Sar- 
danapalus, was the immediate predecessor of Tiglath-Pileser, till the 
learned can determine whether Pul was the father or son of 
ser°''the^u'^- Sardanapalus, or whether he was in fact any way related to 
posed found- that ill-fated monarch, since some contend that he was the 
dj^asty^"*''^ founder of the nevv dynasty, and the father of Tiglath- ' 
Pileser. 

If Babylon made a part of the ancient Assyrian Empire^ 
The kingdom it vvas dismembered at the death of Sardanapalus : or, at any 

of Babylon , . ^ m- i i t->i i ' i ^^ 

severed from rate, before the accession of 1 igiath-PiJeser to the throne of 
Emptre!^"™ Nineveh ; for it constituted a separate kingdom till 3324, 

when Esarhaddon added it to the Assyrian Empire. The 
kingdom of Babylon, just noticed, must be carefully distinguished from 
the Babylonish empire, afterward established by Nabopolassar, who 
destroyed Nineveh, and reigned at Babylon. The destroyer of Sarda- 
napalus, and of the ancient Assyrian Empire, (if we believe the lament- 
able tale,) might or might not have been Arbaces, a Made : and that 
Arbaces might or might not have been the Tiglath-Pileser mentioned 

in the sacred history. We cannot pronounce with any con- 

^ 2i fidence, that Media and Persia either did or did not belong 

iia dismem- to the ancient Assyrian Empire : if they did, they were pro- 

7 



50 HISTORY OF PERSIA. 

bercd from bably dismembered about 3257, as represented on the chart; 

though Prideaox dates the separation later, in the time of 

Syria and Is- Sennacherib. The conquest of Syria and Israel, by Tifflath- 

rael conquer- ^, J -^ , ' •', J° , 

ed. Pileser and his son bhalmanezer, made some amends lor the 

Also, Baby- loss of Media : the conquest of Babylon, by Esarhaddon, and 
th"' k-n^'rd' '^ ^^6 ^ibsequent conquest of Judah and other countries, by 
of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar the second, raised the Assyrian Empire to 
(341G.) great power and splendour. 

The kings of Media were perpetually hostile to the Assyrian kings ; 
but the accounts given by different authors of wars between these 
two nations, are so A'arious and contradictory, that the reader of history 
can derive but little satisfaction from the perusal of detailed accounts. 
It is evident that both parties made great acquisitions of territory at 
the e-vpense of the surrounding nations, and that the whole of Western 
Asia was divided between them when Cyrus commenced his career of 
conquest. It is believed that Cyaxares the first assisted Nabopo- 
lassar in his revolt against Saracus, the last king who reigned at 
Nineveh, and that both Nineveh and Saracus were destroyed by the 
joint efforts of Cyaxares and Nabopolassar. Nabopolassar was a Ba- 
bylonian by birth, and governor of Babylon, under Saracus ; on the 
destruction of Nineveh, he became king, in the place of Sa- 
Nineveh de- fagyg n^(j established the Babylonish Empire. He made 

stroyed. t, , , , p ■ i r i r 

Babylon the seat of empire; and, from tire commencement of 

Babylon his reign, historians call this great monarchy indifTerently 

""of empire^* ^^^ Babylonish or Assyrian Em'pire. The history of Nabo- 

polassar's successors will receive due attention in connexion 
with that of the Jews. The glories of the Babylonish dynasty were 
buried in the grave Avith Nebuchadnezzar, the second of the race. His 
feeble and dissolute successors loosely held the sceptre over a tottering 
empire ; and the vigorous hand of Nebuchadnezzar himself could 
hardly have resisted the predominant fortune of the Persian Cyrus. 



Histonj of Persia to Jl.M. 3500. 

KINGS OF PERSIA. 

Cyrus. Dakius 3d. 

Cambyses. Artaxerexes 2d. 

Darius 1st. Artaxerexes 3d. 

Xerxes. Darius 3d. 
Artaxerxes 1st. 

After the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonish empire rapidly : 
hastened to its downfall ; while the monarchy of the Medes and Per- 
sians proportionately rose in power, and increased in ex- 
^Persia°^ tent, by the "extraordinary abilities and fortune of the Per- 
sian Cyrus. For a detailed account of the Persian hero, 
the reader is referred to Herodotus, Xenophon, Rollin, Prideaux, &;c., 



HISTORY OP PERSIA. 51 

whose various and contradictory accounts demonstrate the uncertainty 
that involves his history, though nothing can be better attested than the 
final result of his wars. It has been asserted by some authors, that 
Cyrus conquered Media, and subjected it to Persia, before he com- 
menced hostilities against the Babylonish kings; but it is generally 
acknowledged that he carried on all his wars in conjunction with his 
uncle Cyaxares, king of Media, whose daughter he married, and 
whose dominions he finally inherited. Many battles and victories are 
attributed to these two confederated kings, during a war of twenty 

years, commencing in 3446. The fate and fortune of Croe- 
oflLydia"^ sus, king of Lydia, who allied himself with Belshazzar, was 

decided in the tenth year of the war, .3456. Cyrus met this 
powerful antagonist in Cappadocia, on the borders of the Lydian king- 
dom ; defeated him in battle, pursued him into the heart of his domin- 
ions ; there defeated him again ; shortly after took Sardis, his capital, 
and made the unfortunate king himself a prisoner. 

Ten years elapsed from the conquest of Croesus by Cyrus, to the 
taking of Babylon. We have no detailed account of the operations 
during these ten years, but eight of them must have been consumed 
in regulating the conquered provinces, and in making new conquests; 
and two years were spent before Babylon. If prodigies of valour, 
transcendent skill, or superiority of numbers, could have availed, the 
fate of Babylon, and of the impious Belshazzar, would not have been 

prolonged two complete years. But storms, assaults, en- 
Babyion. gines, and batteries, were impotently directed against the 

towering ramparts and lofty battlements of Babylon. Cyrus 
might be ignorant of the decrees of heaven, and of the prophecies of 
Isaiah, who called him by name tw^o hundred years before his birth, 
but the eventual success of the Persians strikingly exhibits the hand of 
an overruling Providence. To seek an entrance into Babylon by di- 
verting the w^aters of the Euphrates from their accustomed channel 
through the town, was an expedient that might suggest itself to the 
natural sagacity of Cyrus; but each bank of the river supported an 
inner wall of great height and strength, and it required a bold pre- 
sumption of negligence within the city, to justify the expectation of 
entering it, even after the channel was drained. A night of festivit)% 
merriment, and intoxication, chosen by Cyrus, gave complete success 
to his daring stratagem. He entered the city unopposed; killed the 
king, and in one night subjected to his power that proud people, who 
for two years had defied his threats, derided his unavailing efforts, and 
scoffed at his baffled armies. See Daniel v. 

The Median empire lasted two years after the taking of Babylon ; 
for though Cyrus, the Persian, had been a principal agent in making 
all these great conquests, yet as long as his uncle Cyaxares lived, he 
yielded to him the precedence. The Persian empire commenced in 
3468, when Cyrus became sole king by the death of his uncle. In 
_, . , ^. the same vear, Daniel, findinsf bv a computation of the time, 

Darnel the , , -■ ' ' . ? •' ^ -.K ■, y • i i j 

prophet, that the seventy years captivity, loretold by Jeremiah, had 

expired, prevailed upon Cyrus to let the Jews return to their 

ofThe^ews. Own country, under the direction of Jeshua, the high priest, 

and Zerubbabel, grandson of Jehoiachin, and prince of the 



62 



HISTORY OF PERSIA 



captivity. The decree of Cyrus commanded the captive Jews to re- 
turn, and repeople their desolated '.'ountry, and rebuild their city and 
temple. Daniel possessed great influence in the councils of Cyrus ; he 
had before been advanced into the highest grade of office by the kings 
of Babylon, and his reputation for learning and wisdom procured him 
the highest station under Cyrus. 

The great Cyrus was succeaded by his unworthy son 
Cambyses, Cambyses, whose whole career is marked by the odious ex- 
^"conqueis^' travagance of a wild and furious despot. In the early part 
Egypt, of his reign, this mad king marched into Egj'^pt, Avhich he 
conquered, and annexed to the Persian empire. In this ex- 
pedition, from which he never returned, he displayed all those cruel 
and ferocious qualities which have stained his character with infamy. 
Fifty thousand of his men perished, whom his wanton cupidity sent 
into the Lybian desert to plunder the temple of Jupiter Ammon. He 
lost one half of a great array in his inglorious expedition against Ethi- 
opia. He sent an assassin to kill his brother Smerdis, because he had 
dreamed that he sat upon the throne ; and he killed his wife, who was 
also his sister, because she shed tears for her murdered brother. On 
his way home, in Syria, a herald met him, and proclaimed Smerdis, 
the Magian, king, who, under the false and assumed 
usu^rper. ^ character of Smerdis, tha brother of Cambyses, had usurped 
the throne. In the act of mounting his horse to lead his 
troops to his capital against the usurper, his sword fell from the scab- 
bard, and gave him a wound, of which he died in a few days. Smerdis 
the Magian reigned seven months, when a discovery being made of 
the imposition, he was deposed and killed, by a conspiracy of seven 
noblemen, one of whom, Darius Hystaspes, ascended the 
Darius Hys- Vacant throne. Darius married two of the daughters of 
taspes. Cyrus, whose blood was thus transmitted through the whole 

succession of Persian kings. 
It is supposed that Cambyses was the Ahasuerus, and Smerdis the, 
Artaxerxes, who are said by Ezra to have obstructed the building of 
the second temple. In the second year of Darius Hystaspes, the Jews 
being roused by the remonstrances of the prophets Haggai and Zech- 
ariair, applied themselves diligently to provide materials for the tem- 
ple; and notwithstanding the Samaritans persisted in their 
Second tem- clamorous Opposition, Darius issued a decree confirming the 
pie corapiet- original decree of Cyrus, and forbidding the Samaritans to 
^^' obstruct the work. The temple was finished in 3488, just 

twenty years after the return of the Jews. 
The Persian" kings having made Susa their capital, proud Babylon 
was no longer the seat of a great empire. In the fifth year of Darius, 
that city revolted, and it cost him a siege of twenty months to reduce 
it, and even then he was compelled to resort to stratagem. In 3491, 
Darius carried his arms into Europe, conquered Thrace, and 
^°Da"fus! °^ made an unsuccessful expedition against the Scythians in- 
habiting the western shores of the Euxine, or Black Sea. 
After his return into Persia, he conquered India, and annexed that 
country to his dominions, which then embraced all the great countries 
and kingdoms in the west of Asia, besides Egypt in Africa, and Thrace 
in Europe. 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 53 



History of Lydia to 3500. 

The names of the Lydian kings of three successive dynasties are 
not deserving of a place on the chart; little can be confidently said of 
any of them, except Croesus, the last of his race, and of him fable 
speaks more fluently than sober history. We need not doubt that 
the kings of Lydia, by successive conquests, reduced all the other 
states and kingdoms of Asia Minor under their subjection, and that the 
Greeks settled there were inchided among the numerous tributary sub- 
jects of Croesus. We may readily believe that the Lydian court and 
king are truly represented as supporting great magnificence and splen- 
dour, when Ave consider the internal resources of this country, and the 
busy commerce of the enterprizing Greeks, which might supply with 
great prodigality the luxuries of a court, and serve to exhibit in strik- 
ing colours, the vicissitudes of fortune, in the sudden and unhappy 
overthrow of Croesus and all his Lydian grandeur. 



History of Greece to A.3L 3500. 

During the fabulous or heroic age of Greece, a splendid system of 
fiction was formed, that far transcends all others of the kind ever pro- 
duced by the wild imaginations of men. Many real characters and 
transactions may have been disguised in these extravagant fables, but 
we are limited to mere conjecture, in attempting to separate truth from 
embellishment ; and as yet, no very satisfactory conclusions have re- 
sulted from speculations directed to that object. ' It is impossible to 
trace the origin of ancient fictions, or understand fully the process that 
could have imposed them for truth upon the credulity of mankind. 
Whatever might have been their origin, it is certain that these roman- 
tic dreams finally gained implicit belief, and produced the 
Effectsofthe most Surprising effects upon the character and transactions 
Greek' °^'^''^ of men. The tales of wonder that were related of the ancient 
thoiogy. heroes and demigods, were adapted to inspire the human 
breast with that ardent passion for glory, and that singular 
enthusiasm which predominated in the Grecian character, to the la- 
mentable disparagement of the milder and more amiable virtues. 

The geographical situation of Greece, had also its share of 
phicSlifua- ^'^fl^ence in forming the manners and character of the peo- 
tion. pie. The face of their country every where exhibited the 

most romantici picturesque, and interesting scenes ; their 
delightful climate was calculated to cherish ardour, enthusiasm, and 
patriotic devotion ; while the numerous seas, bays, and gulfs that sur- 
rounded them, promoted intercourse with their neighbours, facilitated 
commercial interchange, and invited enterprizing emigrants from 
abroad. 



54 HISTORY OFGREECE. 

Among the numerous causes that combined to raise the Grecians to 

so high a pitch of physical and inteUectual improvement, we must not 

overlook their numerous games and other institutions, which drew all 

the citizens very frequently together from every part of the country, to 

exercise their skill and stimulate their ambition by emulation and strife. 

The Olympic and Isthmian games were the most celebrated ; 

instiuufons ^^^ besides these, every little state, and every considerable 

&c. ' city, had numerous institutions of the kind, where it was 

honourable to excel, and disgraceful to be excelled. 

ATHENS. 

Athens gov- The Athenians, after abolishing the kingly office in 2934, 
kin"s— per- retained their perpetual or hereditary archons, till 3250, after 
pemaiar- which time they were governed by decennial archons, or ar- 
niai'^ardions chons chosen for ten years, till 3320, when they established 
—annual ar- ^n aristocratical government, which was administered bv ten 

clions ^ *^ 

— a democra- annual archons. This last institution subsisted nearly one 
'^^' hundred years, till Solon established a democracy by vesting 
the power in the assemblies of the people. Solon flourished in the 
time of Nebuchadnezzar the great, and died in 3444. His institutions 
were preserved with some interruptions, till Athens submitted to the 
Romans. The laws of Solon secured to the Athenians a licentious 
freedom, which was liable to perpetual abuse, and which]the wild de- 
mocracy of Athens seldom failed to abuse. 

About the time of Nebuchadnezzar's death, in 3443, and 
Pisistratus shortly before the death of Solon, Pisistratus, a man of great 

usurps sove- . , •' . ' » . 

reign power, address and persuasive eloquence, usurped the sovereign 
power at Athens, in opposition to the interest and influence 
of Solon himself, and retained his authority with some interruptions 
thirty-three years. The Pisistratidse, or sons of Pisistratus, inherited 
their father's authority, and continued to exercise it eighteen years, 
from 3477 to 3495. Such was the aversion of the Athenians to the 
kingly government, that Pisistratus himself was twice driven into exile 
by the turbulence of the democratic factions, though his government 
was exceedingljr mild and indulgent, even to his bitterest enemies. 
His son Hipparchus, was assassinated by a desperate band of conspir- 
ators ; and Hippias, the other son, who was associated with Hippar- 
chus, was finally expelled from Athens in 3495, in the same year of 
the expulsion of the kings of Rome. 

SPARTA. 

From the year 2900, two kings, possessed of equal authority, reign- 
ed jointly at Sparta till a late period of Spartan history. In the days 
ofJoash, king of Judah, and about three hundred years be- 
forrashiscodefore the time of Solon, Lycurgus, one of the joint kings of 
ofiaws. gparta, instituted that famous code of laws which rendered. 
Tbeir effects ^^^ Spartans the most hardy, courageous, inflexible, and ob- 
durate people that ever existed, unless we except the early 
Romans. The commendation of such laws and of such a people, be- 
longs to those who have a taste to admire, and a disposition to eulo- 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 55 

gize patient and voluntary suffering, painful abstinence, gloomy auste- 
rity, and hardy discipline, practised almost to the exclusion of every 
virtue, and seemingly for no other purpose than to bear down their 
wretched slaves and weaker neighbours, under iron yokes of oppres- 
sion and cruelty. The force and effects of this so much admired sys- 
tem of laws, will be progressively developed by the subsequent history 
of Sparta; they were always cruelly felt by their miserable Helots or 
^ . slaves; and were early and conspicuously displayed in the 
ensWed!^ Messenian wars. The first Messenian war — nineteen years, 
from 3261 to 3280; the second fourteen years, from 3319 to 
to 3333; the notice of the third belongs to the next period. The poor 
Messenians had the misfortune to be the nearest neighbours of the 
Spartans, and they had the temerity to defend themselves against the 
wanton and unprovoked attack of the disciples of Lycurgus. At the 
end of the second war, after two glorious struggles for independence, 
they were compelled to submit to a condition little better than that of 
absolute slavery. After the reduction of the Messenians, Sparta long 
maintained a complete ascendency over the other states of the Pelopon- 
nesus. 

CORINTH. 

Monarchy About 3250, the Corinthians killed their last king of the 
aboiishedin yace of Bachidfe, and abolished monarchy. A numerous 
' " 'branch of the Bachidce then seized the government, and 
maintained a rigid aristocracy, till about 3350, when Cypselus, a mild 
and gentle ruler, destroyed the reigning oligarchy, and governed the 
state. Periander, a contemporary of Solon, and like him styled one of 
the seven wise men of Greece, succeeded his father Cypselus, in 3375, 
and died in 3419. Psammetichus, the nephew of Periander, was ex- 
pelled in 3422, after which Corinth usually maintained a free govern- 
ment. 

After the abolition of Royalty at Corinth, every Grecian 
only kingly State had free institutions, except Sparta, whose kings though 
m^toeece* hereditary, were limited and restrained in their authority 
by the senate and Ephori. The democracy of Greece was 
favourable to the improvement and cultivation of the liberal arts, and 
encouraged the full display of genius of every order and cast ; but the 
capricious despotism of a mob, unchecked by constitutional barriers, 
often proved more fatal to the lives and liberty of good men, than the- 
arbitrary rule of a single tyrant. 

MACEDONIA. 

Though this kingdom is said to have been founded by 
^"/jj.j^nia*^ Grecian emigrants from Argos, as early as 3190, its kings 
founded 3190. are little worthy of notice till the time of Philip and Alexan- 
der, who will be introduced as the conquerors of all Greece, 
and of the whole Persian monarchy. 

COLONIES. 

The states founded in Greece by early emigrants from 
nies.' Egypt and Asia,afterward furnished enterprising colonies, that 



56 



HISTORY OF ROME. 



made settlements on nearly all the islands and coasts of the Mediterra- 
nean. The most flourishing of these colonies again supplied emigrants 
for other settlements, and long before the year 3500, the Grecian name 
and nation were diffused over the coasts of Asia Minor, Thrace, Ma- 
cedon, Italy, Sicily, Gaul, and Gyrene in Africa, as well as the nume- 
rous islands in the ^gean and Ionian seas. The JEolians, lonians, 
and Dorians settled the western coast of Asia Minor before the time of 
Solomon. They finally submitted to the king of Lydia, and with him 
to Cyrus. The most famous Grecian cities in Italy, were Tarentum, 
Crotona, Sybaris, Rhegium, and Parthenope, or Naples. Those in 
Sicily, Syracuse, Agrigentum, Gela, Messena, Sicily and the south 
of Italy bore the name of Magna Grecia, or Great Greece, from the 
prevalence of Greek population. 



History of Rome to A.M. 3500. 

The grandeur of the Roman name would seem to entitle their Ro- 
man majesties to a respectful attention ; but it is humbly conceived that 
the poets have already exhausted the magnificent theme of godlike 
descent and marvellous origin; and that grave historians have amply 
embellished the early wonders and infant exploits of a rapacious ban- 
ditti, who made war, and plunder, and conquest, the only honourable 
employments in their little community. That Roman kings conquered 
one little city, and one little territory after another ; and that Roman 
consuls prosecuted similar conquests, after the expulsion of the kings, 
Ave may venture to believe,' without any confidence in the details of 
their history ; and that sullen perseverance was the ruling character 
of the earl}'' Romans, can no more be questioned than that Tarquin was 
a tyrant. 

Italy (Italia) Italy is the English translation of the Latin Italia, dif- 

The origin of this ferently applied at different times, both by Romans and 

name is uncei- Qreeks. 

lam. . ... 

Hesperia meant a western country m relation to 
iiesperia, (Greek) Greece. Ausonia, (Ssc, though sometimes applied by the 
tii"a,°and Opicia^ Grreeks to all Italy, were strictly applied to particular dis- 
tricts. 
ci^aUne^'o ui"^ Liguria, (Genoa) between the Appennines and the gulf 
including Ligu- of Genoa, though commonly included in Cisalpine Gaul, 
"^^ ViTe^ ^uwdim was not inhabited by Gauls, and but few Gauls settled in 
kingdom of Sar- Venetia, (Veneti") around the head of the Adriatic. For 

dinia, and the , i • 'r ,1 t • • 1 -tr ^• 

Austrian king- this reason. We irequently see Liguria and Venetia on 
d°'ati°d''vriUc(f'^ maps, coloured separately from Cisalpine Gaul. 
cispadane,Tra"ns- Cispadane Gaul, Gaul on this side the Po, (with Ligu- 
siot")''^'"'"'''"""a,) Transpadane, beyond the Po, (with Venetia.) 

Central Italy, Central Italy was the original and proper Italy of the 
Italy proper, ori- Romans ; while the Grecians at first applied the name io- 
final. ^° ^""'Grecian Italy, or South Italy. But finally both Greeks. 



HISTORYOFROME. 57 

and Romans included under the name, both Gaul in the north, and 
Magna Grsecia in the south. 

Tuscania, Tuscia, Etruria, Tyrrhenia, all for the same 
Tuscany or Etru- country. The inhabitants of all these districts of Central 
Umbria," (Sena Italy, must be Considered aboriginal, since they cannot be 
Latiii^,"(Aiba.) distinctly traced to their origin. How far they differed in 
„ ,. ' „ . lavvs, language, and manners, we cannot ascertain, as the 
Marsi.) Romans very early diffused among them their own Jaws, 
^^'"'' dLo ^°''' language, and institutions ; in other words, all these peo- 
Saronium. pie were early romayiized. 

The imposing name of Magna Grsecia, (Great Greece) 

implies the prevalence of Greek population in the south of 

nrGriciKt'al' ^'^l/' ^^^ '" ^^^ ^^1^"^ 0^ Sicily. It was chiefly the coasts 

ian Greece, or however that were settled by the Greeks, while the barba- 

ay.)- ^^^^ Lueani, Bruttii, Calabri, Apulii, &c., occupied the 

interior. It was a long time before the Romans conflicted 

with these people. 

The main design of Virgil, in his poem called the 
^EnffiM— diwne ^"^id, was to compliment his patron Augustus Caesar, 
descent of the and, in fact, the whole Latin people, with a divine descent 
KfLa^ins.sa- ^^0^ the Trojan iEneas, the son of Venus. But sober 
bines, Tuscans, history rejects the fiction, and we can barely recognize a 

&c., not known ; ,..-'_•'. . ., ,. ^ „ F , ^ 

nor the charac- distinct Latin nation. Without pretending to denne in what 
Lafins^ "cieariy I'^spects, except in name and geographical position, 
distinguished they differed from their near neighbours, the Volsci, Ru- 
aTTheV*^ became tuli, ^qui, and Sabini, with whom they long contended 
ronianized before under the Roman banners, and with whom they often 

their history be- ..,.,,, . . i t-» 

comesciear. joined in rebelling against the Romans. 

First period, 250 years, beginning A.U.C. 1. — A.M. 

peSdVadopf- 3250--^. C. 750, 7 Kiiigs. Romulus. Rejecting the 
ing as citizens (u- fictions of the poets, we may soberly regard Romulus as 
e"'Jiaces™"d by the founder of Rome, which he peopled with fugitives and 
transplanting, in banditti, Sabines, &c. while he made some small conquests. 

many casfs, the -^ ' •!• mi c i tvt i i e 

people of a con- Nuniu Pompilius. I he peaceiul JNuma was the author of 
queredcuy. the Roman sacred rites and mysteries. Tullus Hostilius^ 
Rmnan^^hufo"*^ ^V destroying Alba, the former chief city of the Latins was 
is full of marvels the founder of the Roman supremacy over the other Latin 
iTo1iiy"iear"that tribes. Ancus Martius, after conquering to the sea, found- 
tjie kings made a ed the Roman port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber. 
progress Kon- Turquin the AV.s# established the Roman supremacy over 
^y'sVatHs 'around ^^^ Tuscans, distant Sabines, &c. ; founded the famous 
them, who con- cap itol, and other public edifices. Servius 7 uiliiis pre- 
inua yre e e . ggj.^^^ jj^g Roman supremacy over the neighbouring 
tant Tisti'tut'ion states, and artfully classed the citizens by centuries, re- 
was that (if (he garding alone the qualifications of property, in fixing the 
vtus^'^Tuiaus— influence each century should have in the election. Taf' 
New conquesu, quinthe P/"OMfi? was exoelled for abusing his power, and vvas 

and new insiitu- ^ . , , r . _ r 

lions will come assisted Several years bvthe neighbouring' stutts in trymg 
sk)n,'^'^i"lhe"*'next 'o recover his ihrone. But monarchy w^s abolished, and 
period till the a Commonwealth substituied, two annual consuls taking 
maniz^! "" the place of the kings. 3494 A.M. 

8 



58 HISTORY OF CARTHAGE. 



History of Carthage to AM. 3500. 

Carthage may have been founded in 3135, but the time is uncer- 
tain. Q,ueen Dido, and her Tyrian train, may flourish in poetic fancy, 
the original foimders of this singular community; but the historian 
can do no more than recognize in the Carthaginian race, a Tyrian 
descent, and a true hereditary spirit of commercial jealousy, and grasp- 
ing enterprise. Authentic history first discovers this great people, not 
in the act of measuring out the bounds of their future capital with 
thongs of a buU's-hide, but already grown up to maturity, wealth, and 
strength. The Carthaginians carried on a lucrative commerce with 
all parts of the then known world. They governed a great extent of 
country on the African coast; and early possessed Spain, Sardinia, and 
some cities in Sicily. Their unfortunate expedition against the Gre- 
cian cities in Sicily, together with their wars and final conquest by the 
Romans, belong to another period of history. 



Important Dates and Events from 3000 to 3500. 

The dismemberment of the kingdom of Israel, in 3029; the building 
of Rome, 3251; the supposed dismemberment of the ancient Assyrian 
Empire, in 3257; the commencement of the first captivity, and destruc- 
tion of the kingdom of Syria, by Tiglath-Pileser, in 3264; the destruc- 
tion of the kingdom of Israel, and completion of the first captivity, in 
3283; the restoration of Babylon to the Assyrian Empire, by Esarhad- 
don, in 3324; the destruction of Nineveh, and commencement of the 
Babylonish dynasty, in 3379, twenty-one years before Nebuchadnezzar 
began to reign alone, in 3400; the commencement of the second cap- 
tivity by Nebuchadnezzar, who took Daniel and other captives, in 3398, 
two years before he became sole king; the death of Nabopolassar, in 
3400, when Nebuchadnezzar began to reign alone; the captivity of 
Jehoiachin, six years after the commencement of Nebuchadnezzar's 
sole reign, in 340H ; the destruction of Jerusalem, by Nebuchadnezzar, 
and the completion of the second captivity, in 3416; 3426 was about 
the middle of the siege of Tyre, which lasted thirteen years ; Nebu- 
chadnezzar had overrun Egypt, and finished all his expeditions, about 
3436; some suppose that Cyrus first commenced his wars, about 3446, 
against Neriglissar, then reigning at Babylon ; Cyrus conquered Croe- 
sus, and added the kingdom of Lydia to the Median and Persian do- 
minions, in 3456; Cyrus took Babylon, and put an end to the Baby- 
lonish or Assyrian Empire, in 3466; in 3468, Cyrus, by the death of 
his uncle Cyaxares, became sole monarch of the vast dominions, before 
possessed and conquered by himself and his uncle jointly ; and here 
commences the Persian Empire. In the same year, viz., 3468, Cyrus 
released the captive Jews, and permitted them to return to their own 



HISTORY OF GREECE. 59 

country; twent}'' years afterward, in the reign of Darius Hystaspes, in 
3488, the second temple was finished; in 3495, the kings were expelled 
from Rome, and the Pisistratidse from Athens ; 3500, hostilities com- 
menced between the Persians and Grecians. 



Continuation of the History, from 3500, A,M.f to the 
time of Augustus, 4004, A.M. 

We find the civilized world, at the period on which we now enter, 
occupied by two great empires, founded by two conquering nations — ■ 
Persia in the east, Carthage in the west ; — the Greek Republics holding 
a middle position, — the power of Rome, which in the end wrests the 
empire from them all, as yet limited to a territory within sight of her 
own walls. 



A-M;35(K). This year is distinguished by occurrences important as 
leading eventually to the desperate struggle between Greece 
and Persia. Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus, having engaged the Per- 
sian satrap Artaphernes in an unsuccessful expedition against the 
island of Naxos, and apprehensive of punishment in consequence of iis 
failure, instigated the people of Miletus, and of other Ionic cities, to 
revolt from the Persian dominion. Athens, as the mother 
°™due(L" ' state of the Ionic colonies, was induced to render assis- 

^■'^■'In??' tance to the revolted towns ; but after a few years the rebel- 
is. u. 4yy 111 11 T" • 11 

lion was quelled, and the lonians agam reduced to subjec- 
tion. Thus was kindled the war which ultimately involved all the 
states of Greece, and which is termed the Grecian and Per- 
vadeGreece. si^N WAR. After having Sent in vain to require earth and 
A-M.3510. -^vater as a token of submission, the Persians reduced the 
Greek islands, and with an army of 1 10,000 men, under Da- 
Defeat at ^''^ ^^^ Mede, invaded Attica. At Marathon they Avere met 
Marathon, by a band of 10,000 Athenians, led by Miltiadesand entirely 
B.C." 489.' defeated. A grand impulse was thus given to Greece, which 
served to awaken her ambition, to give her a knowledge of 
her strength, and to confer on Athens that pre-eminence among her 
sister states, which she so nobly sustained. For ten years the Per- 
sians did not again invade Greece, and Darius dying:, in the 

Xerxes sue- . ^ jjii- v "i-T .• 

ceeds to mean time, was succeeded by his son Xerxes. From his 
*^hrone'^ vast dominions this prince collected an army of 2,000,000 
of men, passed with great pomp through Asia Minor, and ar- 
riving at the Hellespont, constructed a bridge of boats, over 
which his army passed into Europe. The Thracians 
and Macedonians having been compelled to follow in his train, he ar- 
rived without obstruction at Thermopylae, a narrow pass in Mount 
(Eta, of only 25 feet in width, between Phocis and Thessaly. For 
three days this pass was successfully defended by the Spartan Leoni- 



60 HISTORYOF GREECE. 

A.M. 3525. das with 10,000 men. But when it was discovered that a secret 
path had been made known to the Persians, through which the 
mountain might be passed by their army, this force was dismissed, with 
the exception of 300 Lacedemonians, who, together with 
Th^rmopWa^eV'^^''^ ^'"g- remained, and were destroyed, with the excep- 
tion of one man. The news of this defeat was received by the 
Grecian fleet, which had just been engaged in an indecisive battle off 
the promontory of Artemesium, and caused it to return southward to 
the Saronic gulf The Persians having gained the strait of Thermo- 
pylae, termed from its importance the ke.y to Greece, proceeded through 
Phocis and Beotia, entered Attica, and arriving at Athens, laid the 
. city, which had been deserted by the inhabitants, in ruins. 

vic™iouT at While the city was in flames, Themistocles defeated the 
saiaiiiis. Persian fleet at Salamis, and Xerxes in terror fled from 
BU 479^ Greece, leaving, however, an army of 300,000 men under 
Mardonius to effect the conquest of Greece. Three months 
afterwards, the total diefea tof this force at Plata&a by the Greeks under 
Pausanias and Aristides, liberated the Greeks from all fear, 
'if/fr""td^ and, indeed, from the presence of their invaders. On the 
atPiaiaea Same day Xantippus and Leotychides defeated and burned 
the Persian fleet at Mycale. The war, however, continued 
until 3555, when it was terminated by the double victory obtained by 
sea and land over the Persiai s at the mouth of the Eurymedon, in 
Pamphylia, by Cimon the son of Miltiades. 

The Persian invasion had produced a certain degree of union among 

the Greeks; the Athenians and Spartans, however, soon returned to 

their ancient rivalry. The latter had enjoyed the nominal command 

in all the battles in which they had been jointly concerned, but Athens 

had acquired the greater glory. Themistocles proposed to rebuild 

Athens, and in place of its wooden walls, to surround it with walls of 

stone. This the Spartans opposed, assigning as a reason, - 

Waiisof thaf within those walls the Persians, if victorious, might se- 

buiii. curely establish themselves. Themistocles, however, by his 

address, obtained his end, without involving the two states in 

open hostilities. 

In the year 3525 commences what we term Grecian re- 

taha'tkinT taliation for the Persian invasion. Cimon, who was con- 

A.M. 3525. spicuous in his youth at Salamis, will for thirty years be the 

champion of Greece, and the deliverer of the Greek islands 

and coasts from the yoke of Persia. 

For twenty years from the termination of the Persian war, 
Peioponnesianjjje States of Athens and Sparta were engaged in continual 
' „ bickerings, jealousies, and slight skirmishes, which, in 3573, 
B.C.' 434 " broke out into open war. The immediate cause of this con- 
test was a dispute between Corcyra and her colony Dyrra- 
chium. Corinth interfered in favour of Dyrrachium, and Athens in 
favour of Corcyra. Sparta, of course, was with Corinth against 
Athens, and ultimately all Greece engaged in the struggle. 

During this war the scene of action was frequently changed, the 
military operations being confined at particular times to particular re- 
gions. 



HISTORYOPGREECE. 61 

First scene. — Attica and the Peloponnesus, Reciprocal invasions 
for six years. 

Second scene. — Ionian Sea, and the west coast of Greece, around 
Corcyra. Connected with this was the expedition of Demosthenes 
the general, into ^tolia and Locris, and the siege of Pylus. 

Third scene. — Coasts of Macedon and the Chalcidice, whose inha- 
bitants having been reduced, again revolt agaiust Athens. Here the 
Spartans are victorious, particularly in the battle of Amphipolis, 3583. 
After this the war is closed, and a truce concluded for fifty years, call- 
ed the peace of Nicias, from the Athenian ambassador. Corinth, 
Argos, and other states, dissatisfied with the truce, formed a league, 
called the Argive league, which agitated the period of six years, while 
the general war was suspended. 

Fourth scene. — Sicily. A great part of the four following years 
was spent in a fruitless expedition to Sicily. Alcibiades went thither 
to protect the Ionian cities against the Dorian city of Syracuse, which 
was supported by Corinth and Sparta. After a series of unparalleled 
vicissitudes, the Dorians were triumphant, the Athenians lost their 
fleet, and the whole army was either destroyed by military excursions, 
or miserably perished in dungeons. 

Fifth scene. — The Aegean Sea. The war was commenc- 
gean ea. ^^ j^^^^ ^^ ^-^^ Spartans, who went to deliver its islands and 
coasts from the Athenians, as Cimon had from the Persians. We novir 
introduce the Persians for the first time as a party. Darius Nothus 
was then reigning, and his subjects had not forgotten the enmity of 
their fathers against Athens ; they still remembered Marathon and 
Salamis. We have now to reproduce Alcibiades, who having been 
accused of sacrilege, had been ordered home to Athens from Sicily 
to receive the reward of his crime. Instead of obeying, he went to 
Sparta, where he remained some time; but being driven 
Aicibiadei. thence, at last he fled to Asia Minor, and persuaded Tissa- 
phernes to furnish him with means to aid Athens. This was 
done, and after a series of victories, he went home and was received 
with applause and acclamations. But while he was on a visit to 
the Persian satrap, his fleet was defeated by the Spartans. This rous- 
ed the resentment of Athens, and Alcibiades was again driven into ex- 
ile. The Athenians were victorious until 3600, when Ci- 
Bian'wa"ctos'^°" was Surprised, and his fleet destroyed by Lysander, in 
ed. the battle of ^gos Potamos who subsequently invested 
B'.b!404.' Athens, which he took after a siege of three months, and the 
Peloponnesian war was closed. Athens sinks in the dust, 
Sparta domineers over all Greece, and becomes the object of universal 
odium for forty-one years. This period of Spartan dominion may be 
divided into three parts, viz. 

10 Years rigid, rugged, undisputed dominion ^ 

23 " superiority disputed and painfully supported V over Greece. 
8 " dominion feebly asserted ) 

Thirty tyrants devoted to the interest of Sparta were placed in 3600 
over the prostrate Athenians, and the streets of their city were infested 
with spies subservient to their cruel conquerors. But by a secret and 



62 HISTORYOFGREECE. 

^ daring plan the intrepid Thrasybulus, 3601, delivered them 

' from the despotism of these tyrants. 

The history of the principal personages who figured in the Persian 
and Peloponnesian wars, may be summarily related as follows : — . 

MiLTiADEs The battle of Marathon covered Miltiades with glory. 

But failing in an attack upon Faros, and returning dangerously 
wounded, he was accused of treason, and sentenced to pay a fine of 
fifty talents — about $50,000. Unable to pay this fine, he was thrown 
into prison, where, in a few days, he died of his wounds. 

Themistocles was a man of splendid military and political talents, 

and the head of the democratic party. Ambitious to the last 

Themistocies.degree, he hesitated at no measure which. he supposed might 

contribute to his advancement, and the ruin of his rivals. 

Still he loved his country, and chose to rise by promoting her glory 

and greatness. 

Aristides, the head of the aristocratic party, and the rival of The- 
mistocles, though he did not exhibit the address and versatile talents of 
that great man, possessed very eminent abilities. In uprightness and 
disinterested devotion to the public good, he stood without a superior 
among the virtuous great men of antiquity. When banished by the 
Ostracism, he raised his hands to heaven, and exclaimed, " May my 
country never have occasion to regret Aristides." 

Patjsanias, one of the victors at Platsea. notwithstanding his mili- 
tary talents, was too much the slave of his own selfishness and arro- 
gance, to maintain the leading influence which he once possessed. His 
pride and cupidity led him into the commission of treasonable prac- 
tices. Taking refuge from the indignation of his countrymen, in the 
temple of Minerva, he perished of starvation ; his sanctuary having 
been surrounded by a wall, of which his own mother, with the true 
Spartan spirit, laid the first stone. 

The character of Leonidas is written in the sacrifice of ThermopylsB. 

CiMON was the son of Miltiades, and appears to have been equally 
distinguished for his talents and his virtue. His military 
^''p?^'®^°^ career was marked by a series of the most splendid victories, 
which humbled the mighty Persian empire, and made his 
country illustrious and powerful. He possessed a " generosity of 
character, which delighted equally in acts of private bounty, and of 
public munificence." 

Pericles for forty years controlled the Athenian mind, directed the 
Athenian taste, and appropriated the spoil that Cimon, the successful 
and brilliant warrior had won, and the treasuries, intended as a com- 
mon fund, to the embellishment of Athens. Pericles employed the 
genius of Phidias, the greatest of the Greek sculptors, to adorn the 
temples and other buildings with statues. He ruled the people by his 
address and elegance, taste, wealth, and munificence. But his ambi- 
tion carried him too far ; through his influence, Athens was led to the 
most unjust exactions from her allies, and finally, 3573, plunged into 
the Peloponnesian war. He was a consummate orator and statesman, 
perhaps unmatched in address. Amidst all his ambition and vanity, he 
seems to have loved his country ; and he boasted on his death-bed, that 



HISTORYOFGRBECE. 63 

he had never caused an Athenian to put on mourning. He died, 3575, 
in the second year of the Peloponnesian war. 

In the year 3602, we have the expedition of Cyrus the younger, 
governor of Asia Minor, against his brother Artaxerxes, king of Per- 
sia. Having collected an army of 100,000 barbarians, and 
Expedition of 13 003 Qreeks, under pretence of subduing some tribes north 
younger of the Black Sea, he marched to Cunaxa, where he met his 
^BxiAoi^' brother. A battle ensued, in which Cyrus was killed, in sin- 
gle combat with the enraged king, and the army of the Greeks 
reduced to 10,000. Finding themselves deserted by the Persians, and 
their generals treacherously murdered, they chose Xenophon for their 
leader, and commenced their march homeward. Before them 
^^10 000*^*^ are the savages of Asia, behind them a hostile army. Over 
A M 3603 ino'J"tains, across rivers, through deserts, they directed their 
B.c.40i. course to Trebizond, the nearest Greek settlement. From 
thence they went home by water, and were ready to engage 
with Sparta, against the king of Persia, in a war to deliver the Greeks 
of Asia Minor from his yoke. 

For six years, from 3604 to 3610, this war was carried on in Asia 
Minor — the Spartans always victorious. At the same time, Sparta was 
exercising her authority with a high and tyrannical hand over Greece. 
In consequence of this oppression, the Corinthian league, to which 
Persia was a party, was formed, between Corinth, Thebes, and Argos. 
Agesilaus, the king of Sparta, was recalled from Asia Minor, to defend 
his country against the formidable power of this league. From this 
time, the Spartan supremacy declined ; and Athens, having been de- 
livered from the thirty tyrants, was finally restored by Conon to some 
degree of importance. Her long exercised dominion of the sea was 
recovered, and, by means of Spartan spoils, her prostrate walls were 
rebuilt. 

In 3617 the Spartans made peace with the Persians, in the treaty of 
Antalcidas, in which the Persians agreed to abandon all the Greek 
cities, and engaged to protect Sparta. 

In 3623 a Spartan army, on its way to Thrace, entered Thebes under 

(Spartans ^^^ mask of friendship, seized its towers and citadel, and for 

seize Thebes, nearly five years kept possession of the city. In 3627, in a 

B.C. SSL ' most heroic and daring enterprise, it was delivered by Pelo- 

Battieof pidas and Eparainondas. After trying for several years to 

Leuctra. recover the city, the Spartans entered Baeotia, 3633, and at 

BC. 381. Leuctra were completely defeated by the Thebans. 

The Thessalians, oppressed by the tyranny of Alexander, of Pherae, 

invited Pelopidas to their deliverance. Being defeated and 

"^^0.370^' t^ken prisoner in the first engagement, he was liberated by 

Pelopidas Epaminondas, and afterwards, a second time encountering 

goes to Thes- Alexander in battle, he defeated him, but was slain in the 

cedonia. * pursuit. Between his two Thessalian campaigns, he had been 

despatched to Macedon to adjust the claims of the rival sons 

of Amyntas, and, on his return to Thebes, he brought with him as a 

iiostage, Philip, the youngest son of the king. 

The Thebans, under Epaminondas, entered Laconia and pursued 



64 HISTORYOFGREECE, 

the Spartans to the g-ates of their capital, where, " for the first 

A^M"'"3(m ^''^'^' ''^^ Spartan women beheld the smoke of an enemy's 

B.C. 3(33.' camp." Soon after this, the Thebans vanquished the 

Spartans at Mantinea, but in the battle lost their leader 

Epaminondas. 

In the j'ear 3644, Philip stole from Thebes, and, at the age of twenty, 
gained possession of the throne of Macedon. To the natural fierceness 
and vigor of the barbarian, he united all the accomplishments that 
Grecian literature could bestow, having enjoyed all the advantages of 
instruction, under the wisest sages of the brightest age of 
''"phiifp. °'' Greece — heard the most illustrious philosophers, and witness- 
ed the military operations of the greatest generals. Cool, 
politic, shrewd, wily, ambitious, and enterprising, his address and 
dexterity have, perhaps, never been equalled. He had to establish a 
throne claimed by several competitors supported by neighbouring 
states, to reform his court, and to introduce civilization among a peo- 
ple until then uncivilized. 

The Athenians, now the chief power in Greece, owned towns on 
the coast of Macedon, and consequently Philip was always at variance 
with Athens. His eflxirts were also directed against the city of Byzan- 
tium, and the Athenian towns on the Hellespont and the 
ofwra^TOs! Pi'opontis. He next turned his arms against the Thessalians, 
a distracted, refractory people, whose country he subdued, 
and added to Macedon. TheEpirots, Illyrians, Thracians, Mygdonians, 
and Peeonians were his enemies. By the year 3656, he had over- 
run them all ; attacked Euba, taken Olynthus, and marched vic- 
torious to the gates of Greece ; when here, he was invited to act as 
umpire between the contending parties in the sacred war, 
B.C. 354 assisted in subduing the sacrilegious Phocians, was made a 
member of the Amphyctyonic council, and twice defended 
the consecrated ground at Delphi from violation. 

Leaving the pass of Thermopylae defended, he returned home to de- 
vote himself to the internal improvement of his kingdom, and the or- 
ganization of his troops and court. In 3666 he again entered Greece, 
fell upon Elatea, a strong place, took it, and put there a garrison. 
This roused the Athenians and Thebans, who united in a league 
against him, but were defeated by him at CheroncBa. After 
Battle of treating the subdued Greeks with the greatest lenity, he as- 
A.M.°3666. sembled them at Corinth, recited their former injuries from 
BC. 338. Persia, and offered to put himself at their head, and march 
into Asia. He reminded them of the aggressions of the 
Persians, of the inroad of Xerxes with his millions, and the glorious 
triumph at Marathon ; of Miltiades, with his little handful of men, 
overcoming 110,000 Persians; of Leonidas, with his 300, resisting, 
and giving his life rather than have the land tarnished with the foot- 
Phiiippre- ^'^P^ ^^ ^ barbarian. The Athenians bowed to Philip, and 
pares to appointed him their generalissimo. With the greatest gene- 
'"^Asia*"" ral that ever lived, and the most spirited troops that ever a 
isassaswinat- g^^"'^^'*^ had, he thought of nothing but glory and victory. 
«d,A.M. 3668. But irji the midst of this successful career, he was assassin- 



ANCIEN'T HISTORY. 6S 

ifip^ander ^^^'^ '^^ Pausanias, and his son Alexander succeeded to his 
succeeds hiM.throne, 3668. 

Before Alexander could embark for Asia, he had to reconquer 
Greece. Having taken the city of Thebes, burned it to the ground, 
and sold its inhabitants into slavery, which terrified the other cities 
Batde of the ^"''^ submission, he passed into Asia, and in 3671 gained the 

Granicus. battle of the Granicus, and conquered Asia Minor. Pursuing 

Battle of his victorious career, in 3672, he gained the pass of Issus, the 

^^'^ key to Syria. Marching southward, he laid siege to Tyre, 

which, after an obstinate resistance of seven months, yielded to his arms. 

„ Gaza, after a siege of three months, opened her gates, and 

beia. without any farther obstruction, he entered Egypt. Return- 

■b!c". 33l' ^"o f^^"^ Egypt, at Arbela, 3673, he met and completely 
Macedonem- overwhelmed the king of Persia, subverted the Persian, and 
pire oun e . fg^i^^jg^j jf^g Macedonian empire. 

In the organization of this vast empire, Alexander first marched into 

the east to receive the submission of the countries subject to the Persian 

dominion, then returned to Babylon, which he aimed at restoring to its 

ancient splendour, and making the seat of empire. But here, 

Alexander. ^^ the midst of mirth, revelrj^, and intoxication, his projects 

were abruptly terminated by death, 3681. 
"b'c 3^^' "^^^ generals of Alexander, all unprincipled and ambitious 
men, were anxious for a division of the empire; but that 
being a delicate and difficult thing, they set up two mock kings, Phi- 
lip Aridaeus and Alexander ^gus ; one an ideot, and the other an in- 
„ , „„ fant. The authority of their guardians, Eumenes and Per- 

Death of Eu- -,. ,. ■', ,.° i -n i • 

menes and diccas, was disputed. Percliceas was killed in trying to 
Perdiccas. gubdue Ptolemy of Egypt, and Eumenes was pursued from 
province to province, the whole extent of the empire, by the other gen-^ 
erals, until 3689, when he was betrayed by his own soldiers, and de- 
livered to his enemies. 

After the death of Eumenes, Antigonus looked upon him- 
315-301." self as lord of Asia, and in the course of nine years found 
Antigonus. himself SO. The principal resistance he met with was from 
Ptolemy of Egypt, with whom he contended about Syria, 
Palestine and Cyprus. It was soon discovered that his grasping am- 
bition was not to be satisfied with Asia alone. He, or rather his son, 
marched into Europe, took Athens from Cassander, besieged Rhodes, 
conquered most of the Peloponnesus, destroyed the family of Alexan- 
der, and, 3698, assumed the title of king, which last example was fol- 
lowed bv the other generals. 

Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and Cassander, united their forces, 
power and means against Antigonus and his son Demetrius. 
ipsus. At the battle of Ipsus, Antigonus was killed, and Demetrius 
Bc 30l' ^^^ ^^*^™ '■^^ scene of their defeat. But though he had lost 
Asia, he still retained Egypt, Greece, Tyre and Sidon. Be- 
fore the battle, he had been received and adored as a god in (jJreece; 
but after he came from Asia Minor, the ports of Greece were shut 
against his fleet, and the gates against his army. He then went to 
Thrace, plundered the cities subject to Lysimachus, returned, and was 

9 



66 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

Adventures again deified at Athens, where he heard that he had lost 
Poieircetea. Cyprus. He next received a message from Alexander of 
Macedon, requesting his assistance against Lysimachas; but 
by the time he arrived at the scene of contest, the storm had blown 
over, and Alexander told him he did not need his services; Demftrius 
answered, however, he would stay and feast with him. He did so, and 
at a signal, his troops entered, slew Alexander, and Demetrius became 
king of Macedon. Thinking he could now fulfil the ambitious designs 
of his father, he prepared to invade Asia, but was opposed by Lysima- 
chus and Pyrrhus. From them he fled to Seleucus for aid, and by 
him was confined on an island, where he ended his days in hunting 
and feasting After the battle of Ipsus. what is called the 
sion of Alex- FINAL DIVISION of Alexander^ s empire took place. To Ptolemy 

^'"'^^j.g^'"' were given Egtpt, Lybia, Palestine, and Ccelo-Syria. 
To Seleucus, Asia, except Palestine, Pergamus, and Bithy- 
nia ; Lysimachus had Thrace, Pergamus, and Bithynia; Cassander, 
Macedon and Greece. 7'he world became Hellenized. The Greek 
language and culture prevailed wherever there were Greek princes; 
and there were Greek princes wherever Alexander had conquered 
From the death of Alexander until this period, the world had been one 
scene of carnage and slaughter ; mankind became accustomed to cru- 
elty, wantonness, bloodshed, and crime, and Alexander's fifty generals 
were reduced to four. 

Macedon after the division of the empire. Cassander married 
Thessalonica, the sister of Alexander ; and the court, during his reign, 
and that of his three sons, presents a scene of horror almost unparal- 
leled in the pages of history. To him succeeded Demetrius, 
c?don, * who was attacked and driven out by Lysimachus and Pyr- 
rhus. The latter soon expelled the former and reigned 
alone. Then we have old Seleucus from Asia, then Meleager, Cerau- 
nus, Antipater, Sosthenes, and ultimately we have the family of Deme- 
trius restored in the person of Antigonus Gonatus. All these kings 
succeeded in the space of twenty-two years, during which time there 
were but two kings in Egypt and three in Asia. 

AM 3750 ^y y^^^' ^^^^ ^^' '^^^^ passed the Macedonian period, 

B.C. 254.' and arrived at the Roman, Achaean, and Parthian. 

Achaean T/ie Achaean League was a union of twelve cities ostensi- 
League. ^^^y for common defence agains^t the kings of Macedon, but it 

Aratus and vvas of no importance until Aratus, a celebrated son of Sicy- 
" one, by a bold enterprise delivered the city from a- domestic 
tyrant and united it to the league, 3760. 

At this time Athens, Corinth, and Sparta, were fettered by Macedo- 
nian Garrisons. Aratus, in the night, climbed the wall of Corinth, sur- 
prised the army of Antigonus, delivered the city, and Corinth became 
a part of the league. Through the exertions of Aratus, the Argolians, 
Messenians, and Athenians, also joined it. This was the last organ- 
ization of Greece, and in it, as actors, we have Aratus and Philopcs- 
men, who are called the last of the Greeks. From this time there is 
a constant struggle between Macedon and the league ; but on the part 
of the league without one rational object being accomplished for which 
it was formed. During its entire existence the members of it were at 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 67 

war with each other, or embroiled with the savage ^Etoliaas and the 
Spartans. Finally we see them admitting Antigonus Doson into their 
country, and giving him a free passage through the isthmus of Corinth 
to fight their battles with tlie Spartans, whom he defeated in the fa- 
mous battle of Sellasia. This scene of confusion continued until the 
arrival of the Romans under Flaminius. Having defeated Philip 
Cynocpphaie. °^ Macedon in the battle of Cynocephale, 3808, he proclaim- 

^b'c rq(f ■ ^^ ^'' Greece free and independent. This procured for the Ro- 
mans the name of the patrons of Greece, and insensibly pav- 
ed the way to their universal dominion. In a second Macedonian war, 
Pydna. ^^6 Romans were again victorious, and having gained the 

A-^J,. 383G. battle of Pydna, carried Perseus, the last king of Macedon, in 

B.C. 108. 1 . f^ 

chams to Rome. 
A.M. 3500. T^^ history of Rome under its kings belongs to the for- 
mer period ; at the commencement of the present, 3494, two 
consuls were elected with power equal to that of the kings. The se- 
nate were a regularly organized body, whose power continued to in- 
crease for many ages. The people at this time being divided into two 
orders, patricians and plebeians, the consuls were chosen from the for- 
mer, and united the sacerdotal with the political office. For fifteen 
years the Romans struggled against the attempts of their king Tar- 
quin, and at the same time a contest was carried on amongst them- 
selves, growing out of the distinction of patrician and plebeian. The 
patricians had the preponderance in their elections, because the people 
voted in artificial classes called centuries. The plebeians, 3511, retir- 
^^ ^ pd to Mons Sacer. To satisfy them the office of tribune 

Office of J 1 1 -1 1 r 

Tribune, was created ; but the tribunes were possessed or mere nega- 
B.c.' 493' ^^^^ restraining power. They were not permitted to come 
into the senate-house, but were allowed only to sit at the 
door; they could not propose any law, but they could stop the consuls 
and senators from proceeding in any measure. To prevent the con- 
founding of distinct offices, we may mention that there were two prin- 
cipal kinds of tribunes, v\z. military tribunes, with military power; 
popular tribunes, with mere negative power; to these for a period may 
be added consular tribunes. 

At last, 3537, military tribunes were no more elected ; and it was 

resolved to have two consuls, one from the patricians, and the other 

from the plebeians, with power to call together the senate, the army, 

Decemviri, ^^^ ^^^ people, 3555. In the time of the great Pericles the 

A.M. 3555. Decemvh'i were elected, with authority to frame a code of 

■ laws, which were called the twelve tables; but they abused 

their power, and the office was soon abolished. Another office was 

that o{ Dictator, a magistrate invested with unlimited power. 

All other offices were partially suspended, and the dictator 

was absolute master of the lives, liberty, and fortunes of the Roman 

people. If there were convulsions in the city, he would still them in 

a moment. When the army had met with great disasters, and it was 

necessary to make great exertions, he could command the persons and 

purses of the citizens. 

The office of Censor, simple at first, was afterwards of 
great power aod dignity. The first business of the Censor 



68 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

was to take an account of the peo; le and their estates; then to exam- 
ine into the morals of public men, with power even to expel a senator. 
The Praetor, treasurer, commissar3', provider, took care of 
the funds, and provided for the arm}'. 
Aediies. AedUes had the care of the public buildings. There were 
Vestai3.. also Vestals, who took care of the sacred tire The plebeians 
could not e.Kercise any sacerdotal power; wherefore, after the 
plebeians were admitted to the consulate, the Romans created separate 
Pontiffs officers called Pontiffs, with the highest ecclesiastical 
power. 
The Agrarian Law was a source of eternal contest. The Romans 
had been going on in one uninterrupted series of conquests, and had 
always appropriated a part of the conquered lands to themselves. 
These were put up for sale, and of course bought by the patricians, 
Avho had farms all over Italy. A law was made forbidding any per- 
son's having more than 500 acres of land; the surplus was given to 
the poor. 

AM 3G14 '^^^ Romans, for about 500 years from the foundation of 

the city, were surrounded by enemies — the Gauls in the 

north, the states of Magna Graecia in the south, and the Tuscans, 

Umbrians, Samnites and Latins, their nearer neighbours. Courage 

was common to them all, but the cunning of the Romans enabled them 

to gain the ascendency. The Gauls, 3614, besieged Clusium. The 

Romans sent ambassadors commanding them to return, 

byUieGauU vvhich they, however, disregarding, marched to Rome, took 

the city and burned it. 

The Romans, who had always been at peace with the Samnites, 

were invited to protect the city of Capua, which was attacked by the 

enemy. Upon their refusing, the Capuans surrendered 

tiieSii^tes. thfi'" city, saying that the Romans would surely protect their 

own. The consequence was, a war with the Samnites for 

ten years. 

The Romans next turned their arms against the Tarentines, a Spar 

tan colony, who applied for assistance to Greece. The great Pyrrhus 

was sent to their aid. But the Romans were always ulti- 

^^^*i^yg^^'' mately victorious; and in Italy the usual good fortune of 

Pyrrhus forsook him. In admiration of the Roman valour, 

he was heard to exclaim, " With what ease could I conquer the world, 

had I the Romans for soldiers, or had they me for their king." 

By the year 3740, the Romans had conquered all Italy, and their 
career o. foreign glory commences by a successful war with iCar- 
thage. 

The Roman sun is rising in splendour, and the Grecian sun is 
setting. 

The famous year 3750, is the tenth year of the first Punic 
Punic wars, war, by which Sicily and the dominion of the sea is trans- 
ferred from Carthage to Rome. By the second Punic war, 
which terminates 3803, the Empire of the West is transferred to 
Rome. By the third, terminating 3858, the city of Carthage is laid 
in ruins. 

The first Punie war was not sufficiently interesting for detail. The 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 69 

period of the second was distinguished by two of the greatest kings of 
that/«/^en, degenerate age, viz. Philip of Macedon, and Antiochus the 
Great. These, together with Hannibal the Carthaginian, had a com- 
mon hatred to the Romans, and were successively humbled by them — 
Hannibal in 3803, Philip 3808, Antiochus 3813. 

At the commencement of these wars, the Carthaginians possessed a 
coast of 1000 miles in Africa, and rich mines in Spain ; they were 
masters of the sea, and their commerce and conquests were rapidly ex- 
tending throughout the world. With a jealous eye, their progress 
was viewed by the Romans, until Hannibal, the governor of Spain, 
burning with revenge, and animated by a thirst for glory, laid siege to 

Saguntum, a city under the protection of Rome. This was 
^^i"ken™ considered a declaration of war. Saguntum was taken, and 

its flames kindled two worlds. Hannibal advanced along the 
coasts of Spaia and Gaiil, into Italy, conquering as he went. Before 
him all was consternation, and behind him the wasteful effects of his 
plundering army. 

At Trebia, in the north of Italy, he entirely defeated the Ro- 
Trebia,Thra- mans, at Tlirasimene he was again victorious, and at Can- 
^'"cannae"*' nae, the slaughter of Roman nobles was so great, that three 

bushels of gold rings were collected and sent to Carthage. 
Hannibal, pursuing his triumphant course to the very gates of Rome, 
there waited for aid from Spain and Macedon. But the Romans, in- 
stead of again meeting him in the open field, sent their armies to pre- 
vent his allies from joining him. Having lost two large armies, and 

two of their best generals, they now sent the younger Scipio, 
querrspaki'. 3800, with an army into Spain. After conquering the coun- 
try, he returned home, and proposed to conduct an army into 
^Afdca"*° Africa ; in this, though he was opposed by all the elders of 

the senate, he finally prevailed. Hannibal, after keeping 

possession of the most beautiful parts of Italy for fifteen 

zama° years, was called home. The battle of Zama was fought 

^' c' 201^' •^^OS. Hannibal was defeated, and Africa was transferred 

to Home. 
Greece was now all confusion. War, bloodshed, hatred, vengeance, 
reigned universally. Philip of Macedon, was no better than the rest, 
except that he had a larger army. When the Romans sent their ar- 
mies to keep him from aiding the Carthaginians, the smaller states of 
Greece, beaddled with the name of liberty, and being enemies of Philip, 

joined the Romans, who, in about four years, conquered Phi- 

Komans con-J . • i i i r V-^ i i nc^n^ i • i • 

quer Philip in up m the battle 01 Cynocephale, o808, leavmg him a name, 
^CyuocepUail.^ crown, and a little kingdom, on condition that he should 
A.M. 3808. pay them a tribute, and make no pretensions to sovereignty 
over his neighbours. Flaminius proclaimed liberty to all 
Greece — liberty to pay tribute, and serve the Romans for ever. An' 
tiochus the Great, who was reigning in Asia, while Hannibal was 
gaining laurels in Italy, had been trying to recover Parthia and Asia 
Minor, which was divided between four petty princes. He had con- 
quered Syria, invaded India, and would have soon subjected Asia Mi- 
nor, had he not been arrested by the Romans. Hannibal, when he 
fled from the field of Zama, went to Asia, and became the counsellor 
of Antiochus, advising him to attack the Romans in Sicily. He com- 



70 ANCIENTHISTORY. 

Antiochus rnenced the war in Greece, was defeated in a naval enjraffe- 

dffGatod at . . o o 

Mannesii. ment, and driven back to Asia Minor. Here the pettj? pow- 
B.c. "lai! ^''^ joined the Romans against him, and he was totally de- 
feated, 3813, by Scipio Asiaticus, in the battle of Magnesia. 
The Egyptians, threatened by Antiochus and Philip, had already 
Pydna. thrown themselves under Roman protection, when, in 3834, 
A.M. 3834 at the battle of Pydna, the Romans conquered Macedon, and 
carried Perseus, its last king, in chains to Rome. 

Though the Romans had proclaimed liberty to Greece, 
Corinth and Ju 3858, they destroyed Corinth, the capital of the Achaean 

Cart/ia.gG ta.- _ i i i i i • • m i 

ken. League, and reduced the country to subjection. 1 he same 

B.'c!i46f" y^ar Scipio Africanus the Younger, terminated the third Pu- 
nic war by taking the city of Carthage. 
\ The whole world is Roman, in bondage to the Roman senate. 
There were kings, many kings, but all trembled at the Roman nod. 
A restless, warlike people, cannot be without employment. All foreign 
enemies were conquered, and we shall soon see the fatal consequences. 
From A.M. 3860, B.C. 144, to A.M. 39G0, B.C. 44. In- 
j^^^^^gi ^^j^Jernal cojwulsions shake the whole fabric of Roman power, 
vuisiona. till finally the Roman constitution is overthrown, and indivi- 
duals trample the senate in the dust. Although the rule in 
Spain was transferred to Rome, by the successful termination of the 
second Punic war, it cost the Romans many hard efforts to subdue 
„ .• the interior and distant nations, who long resisted and often 

Numantia. , i, , ^r • r.<^,^-. . . , .° . • i , 

A.M. 3863. rebelled. Niimantia, dSo'S, a city in the interior, assisted by 

B. c. 141. ji^g Celtiberi and Lusitani, baffled the Roman arms fourteen 

years. The celebrated Viriathus was leader of the Spanish confede- 

Gracchus I'a'Cy. tiH ^G was treacherously killed. Tiberius Gracchus, 

A.M 3871. 3871, by attempting to divide the lands bequeathed by Atta- 

lus, the last king of Pergamus, among the people, excited a 

a.'m.^sssI. tumult in which he v/as killed. Caius Gracchus, 3883, 

B.C. 121. followed the example of his brother, and shared the same 

Numidia fate. .Tu2"entha, 3893, a dependent king of 7Vi<mirfia, havins" 

B.C. 111. braved the Roman power five years, was dragged in chains 

to Rome by Marcus and Sylla, where he was starved to 

death in a dungeon. 

The Teutones and Cimbri savage tribes of Germany, who left the 

wilds of their country, with their wives, children, flocks 

A.M.3913. and herds, after seeking to establish themselves in the mild- 

B. c. 101. gj. climates of Gaul and Italy, and resisting the power of 

Rome for eight years, wei'e annihilated, 3903, in one battle, just as they 

were preparing to cross the Alps, and enter Italy. The Social War, 

3913, put to a frightful test the supremacy of Rome. This was a war 

between Rome and her Italian allies or Socii, subjects, call- 

. .^ ed allies, who demanded the right of Roman citizenship, 

A.M. 3913.' that is, the right of going to Rome and voting, or being elect- 

B. 0.91. gj ^^ office. 300,000 soldiers perished in this war, which 

lasted until the Romans artfully weakened their enemies by 

yielding to some, what they demanded. Next Mithridates broke out 

of Pontus, overran Asia Minor and Greece, and caused to be killed 



ANCIENT HSTOHY. 71 

80,000 Roman citizens, that were in Asia Minor. The bloody victories 
of Sylla in Greece, pressed Mithridates back into Pontus. But the 
atrocious struggle of Marius and Sylla, for the command in this war, 
made Rome itself a scene of slaughter and carnage. Twice in its turn 
each party prevailed, and four times the streets of Rome were deluged 
with Roman blood. Marius prevailed the second time, while 
A.^M.'sgsa. his rival was in Greece; and Sylla the second time when 
B.C. 81. j^g returned from Greece. After a war of two years,Si/Ua 
prevailed, was appointed Dictator, but abdicated after ruling two years. 
The stage is now to be filled by new actors, viz, Cato, Cieero, 
CcBsar, Pompey, and Crassus. Pompey raised an army himself, and 
assisted Sylla to subdue the Marian faction in Italy : he was succes- 
sively sent to Sicilt/, where he defeated Cneus Carbo ; to Africa, 
where he routed and killed Domitius; and to Sp^-in, where he subdued 
Sertorius, who, like Carbo, had fled from Sylla, and was trying to 
keep up the Marian faction. Marcus Lepidus, a restless, intriguing, 
profligate demagogue, being appointed to the consulship, after his 
term was expired, rushed down from Cisalpine Gaul upon Rome 
with his army, and was defeated. 

Amid the confusion and disorder of these times, the slaves 
cfadTators. and gladiators of Italy and Sicily, under Spartacus, for three 
■^B^D^Tr^' years desolated Italy, defeated army after army, and threat- 
ened Rome itself. When Pompey returned from Spain, 
Crassus was on the eve of a battle with these slaves, and by the union 
of their two armies these generals were victorious. 

In the same year, Mithridates again broke loose in Asia Minor, was 
pursued by Lucullusinto Armenia, and the Roman foreign conquest 
is RESUMED. But One enemy still annoyed the Romans— the pirates 
in the Mediterranean, encouraged by Mithridates and Sertorius. In 
the short space of four months Pompey subdued them, and Rome again 
possessed the dominion of the sea. In the mean time, the soldiers of 
Lucullus, instigated by his brother-in-law, Clodius, mutinied, and Mi- 
thridates recovered his kingdom. In 3937 Pompey was 
subdurd.^ Sent agaiust Mithridates, and after a three-years' war, entirely 
'^b'^c 6?^' subdued him. After conquering Syria, regulating Judea, and 
establishing the Herod family in the person of Antipater, 
Pompey returned to Rome, and had a triumph never before exceeded 
in splendour. But as if there was to be no end to borror, 
consymcy. Catalinc formed a conspiracy to burn the city, and over- 
^3^.^64^"' ^hrow the Roman Empire. He had been disappointed in 
obtaining the consulship, and took this method to revenge 
himself on Cicero his opponent. Happily the plot was discovered, 
and Cataline driven from the city, 3940. 

For four years, from 3940 to 8944, Rome was agitated by the fla- 
gitious quarrels and intrigues of three unprincipled men, Pompey, 
Crassus and Ccesar, who each had his partizans. The Roman Se- 
j^ nate had before ruled, but now these three men, united, 
virate. formed the ^rst triumvirate, 3944, and all were obliged to 
^ixxmt' submit. Cato resisted, but was dragged to prison. Pompey 
was a man of much enterprize and unbounded ambition, unit- 
ed with great dignity. He could never help displaying his superiori- 



72 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



ty. Caesar was cunning', intriguing, profligate, and shrewd, and 
capable of dissimulation. Pompey was the most honest man ; he pre- 
ferred honesty to dishonesty, if he could as well carry his point; but 
Csesar would rather be dishonest; he liked to have a little shrewdness 
mixed with his dealings ; he was the greater commander, and the more 
eloquent man. The triumvirate divided the world. Cassar took the 
two Gauls ; Pompey took Spain and Africa ; Crassus chose Syria and 
the East. Italy was given nominally to the senate. Pompey had al- 
ready won his laurels, and therefore remained at home. Crassus went 
to gather the spoils and riches of the East, and met in Parthia a most de-^ 
plorable fate. Betrayed and deserted by his friends, he had seen his sons 
, .„ ^ and his troops miserably perish, and was himself killed by 

Cassar killed p , . '^ , /-< i • • i ■ j i • 

in Parthia. One 01 his generals. Csesar having immortalized his name 
"^8^0^53^' ^" eight splendid campaigns, was commanded by Pompey to 
lay down his arms, disband his armies, and return to Rome. 
Csesar refused to do this, unless Pompey would also disband his 
troops, and marched his army toward Rome. On coming to the Rubi- 
con, the southern boundary of Gaul, to pass which was esteemed trea- 
son, Cassar paused; but exclaiming, "the die is cast," he plunged 
into the river, and followed by his devoted soldiers, went like a tem- 
pest to the gates of Rome. Pompey and the senate escaped to Greece, 
where they were joined by Cato, who hated both generals, but thought 
Pompey the least dangerous. Thus commenced the civil war between 
Pompey and Csesar. 

Rome and Italy submitted to Csesar; but Pompey had two 

First civil . • -i 

war. powerful armies in Spain, which Csesar had to conquer. 
"Vc^ls^" ^^^^"^ accomplishing this, he passed into Greece, where at 

Dyrrachium he was defeated ; but collecting his forces, he 
p^lrsaUa. totally Overthrew Pompey in the great battle of Pharsalia, 
A.ai.395G. 3950. Pompey fled into Egypt, where he was assassinated. 

Thus ended the personal contest between the rivals. 
Egypt. After the battle, Caesar went to Egypt and espoused the 

cause of Cleopatra, against her husband and brother, Ptole- 
my Dionysius, conquered him, and placed Egypt under Roman aicta- 
tion. Pharnaces, son of Mithri dates the Great, who had joined Pom- 
pey, was next conquered by Caesar. It was after this conquest that he 
wrote his much celebrated letter, veni; vidi; vici; — / came ; I saw f 
1 conquered. After this Caesar returned to Italy, from whence he went 
to Africa, where was a remnant of Pompey's party, under Cato and 
Scipio. After fighting several battles, he defeated his enemies at Thap- 
sus, returned to Rome, from whence he embarked for Spain, where he 
conquered Pompey's two sons, Cneius and Sextus. 

Csesar was now master of the world. But Brutus and 
^fhe worid"*^ Cassius were republicans, and the enemies of Csesar. His 

love of power, and his display of that love, together with a 
rumour that he was going to assume the title of king, induced Brutus 

and Cassius, with sixty senators, to form a dark conspira- 
^A.M!'3m cy, which on the ides of March, 3960, accomplished his 

death. But he left behind him associates worse than him- 
self, who were ready to avenge him. His nephew, Octavius, a youth 
of eighteen, but with as much deliberate coolness as sixty years could 



HIStORYOFROME. 73 

have sfiven him, undertook to revenge his uncle's death, and found 
himself opposed by Marc Antony. Octavius saw the distressed state 
of the empire, with the senate on one side and Marc Antony on the 
other. By pretending to be a simple-hearted republican, he won Ci- 
cero and the senate, and in the battle of Mutina defeated Antony and 
drove him into Gaul. Repenting of his rashness, he wrote a very 
tender letter to Antony, desiring his friendship, and requesting him to 
return. This request being complied with, Antony, Octavius, and I^epi- 
dus met on an island. Before they rushed into each other's bosoms, 
however, they took the precaution to send their respective servants, 
each to search the person of his master's friend, lest he should carry a 
concealed dagger. After dividing the power among themselves, their 
first work was to annihilate their enemies. The friends of one were,- 
in some cases, the enemies of the other, and each surrendered these 
friends. Their union, 3961, was called the second triumvi- 
umvirat" fdte, and the world was subject to them. But Brutus and 
'^*c 43^^' Cassius were still in the East, collecting armies and uphold- 
ing the standard of resistance. Antony and Augustus col- 
Phiiippi. lected their forces in the west. In 390'2 they met at Phi- 
^B^^^^' ^ippi- Brutus had his army, Cassius had his; Antony had 
his army, and Augustus had his. The army of Cassius 
alone was defeated; but thinking Brutus too was conquered, he killed 
himself. In twenty days there was another battle, in which Brutus 
was defeated and fell on his sword. Antony and Augustus now divid- 
ed the world between them. Antony took Greece, Asia, and Egypt ; 
Augustus, Spain, Gaul, Italy and Africa. This state of affairs con- 
tinued for ten years, during which time Antony lived in Egypt, with 
'Cleopatra, neglecting his part of the empire, and allowing his armies 
to be defeated in Parthia. Augustus in the meanwhile was actively 
engaged. He marched his army into the north of Italy, laid waste 
a district of twenty miles, drove out the unoffending inhabitants, and 
planted his soldiers there. Among the number deprived of tht- ir farms, 
was the father of the poet Virgil; but his son, by celebrating in his 
poems the praises of Augustus, was reinstated in his patrimon3^ Au- 
gustus was always cool and calculating, prepared for any emergency; 
while Antony was dissipated and profligate, and spent his time in the 
meanest pleasures. Augustus with his fleet went to Greece; Cleopa- 
tra, with a fleet of sixty ships, accompanied Antony in pursuit of him. 
A naval engagement ensued at Actium, 3974, when Cleopa- 
a^m'3^4 ^^^' ^^^'^ ^ mere whim, gave the signal for flight, and An- 
BiC. 30. ' tony, finding himself deserted, followed her, and left Augus- 
tus the victory. Cleopatra fearing she should be carried to 
Rome to grace the triumph of the conqueror, built an enormous pile, 
on which she placed herself, determined, if Octavius took the place, to 
set fire to it. Antony understanding that she was dead, slabbed him- 
self; but he being informed that she was still alive, caused himself by 
means of ropes to be taken into the tower, that he might die 
Antony a"d ^" ^^'^ presence. Augustus by surprise took the tower, and 
Cleopatra. Cleopatra, to avoid falling into his hands, caused herself to 
be bitten by an asp. Augustus is now lord of the world. 
10 



74 HISTORY OF ROME. 



Summary of Roman History to the time of Au- 
gustus from the above. 

2d Period (commonwealth) 250 yeais from kings expelled, 3500," to 

the tenth year of the first Punic war, 3750, Conquest of Italy. 

Tarquin and his allies routed and reduced, 3506. The Ro- 

Defeat ofTar-j^an character and policy is completely developed during 

A.M. 3506. this rugged period. — Incessant wars with the rebel Latins, 

B.C. 498. ^qui, "Volsci, Sabines, Tuscans, and Galli Senones ; till 

at last the Romans reach the Gauls in the north, and the 

Conquest. of gjjjjifjites and Greeks in the south. Usually victorious, un- 

the south of , i • , • ^ c t ■ i c • r 

Italy. daunted in the midst oi disaster; instead or craving peace oi 

^B^c.m* ^n exulting enemy, they appointed a dictator, with absolute 
power to control their lives and property, and concentrate the 
energies of the state to a particular point. The detail would present 
endless repetitions of heroic deeds and patriotic devotion. At last, in 
spite even of the victories of Pyrrhus, the Samnites and Greeks had 
to submit, and thus the Romans reach the Greeks and Carthaginians 
of Sicily. (See below. 1st Punic.) 

(New offices and new magistrates during this period. ) Dictator, a 
terror to friends and enemies. Tribunes of the people, or popular tri- 
bunes to satisfy the plebeians; a singular magistrate, originally having 
only a veto on the senate and other magistrates. {Mons Sacer.) Mili- 
tary tribunes, with consular power, were very different ; they took 
the place of consuls, and were often appointed to satisfy the people, as 
consuls must be patricians. Frequently appointed between 3560 and* 
3838, when they were abolished, and the people allowed to choose 
one plebeian consul. Decemviri, ten men instead of consuls, with 
power to frame a code of laws ; abolished for enormous abuse of power, 
after the code was finished. (Ap. Claudius, Virginia.) 

Civil broils during this period. The Plebeians claim a divisionof 
the lands, (agrarian laws) ; also a share in the public honours and 
offices; a right to intermarry with patricians ; and a right to vote by 
tribes instead of centuries, which made a poor man's vote equal to the 
rich man's vote — with all these ferments at home, the Romans never 
relaxed in war. 

So Pkriov (commonwealth) 2b0 years from the ]st PvNic war, lOtk 
Foreign Con- year, 3750, to the birth of Christ, 4000. Conquests 
tunlcWar. ABROAD, (out of Italy,) with a frightfid interval ofiNTEHNAL 
B^'c^M^be-^^^^^^^^^^^' ^^ ^he 1st Punic war, (1st war bteween 
gun.' Rome and Carthage), the Romans triumph, and get Sicily 

and the dominion of the sea, (3740 — 3764); 22 years of peace succeed; 
then we have the 2d Punic, the most famous Punic w^ar, (Hannibal's,) 
from 37b6 to 3803, 17 years. Carthage (Hannibal) was victorious 
several years, till about 3800, when the tide of fortune turned in favour 
of the Romans, and rolled on resistless 58 years over the west, 
(Spain,) south, (Africa,) and east, (Greece and Asia.) Lords of Spain 
and Africa in 3h03, the Romans hvmbled Macedon, 3808; Asia, An- 
tiochusthe Great, (see Greece and Asia,) in 3813; at the same time 



HISTORY OP ROME. 75 

entang'ling Greece and Eirypt, and the petty powers of Asia in a rleceit- 
ful allifince ; conquered Ma.ced6n, SS'in', destroyed Corinth and Car- 
thage, 3S38; making Africa and Greece (Achasan League) Roman 
provinces. Where the Roman arms did not penetrate, the terror of 
the Roman name awed an obsequious world. Thus in the space of 
5S years (;:{800 — 3858) Rome swelled into Romania or Universal 
Rome. Asia was tributary, and Egypt under Roman guardianship. 
All the rest were Roman provinces. Then succeed internal convul- 
sions. 

Period of internal convulsions from 'iSo'^ till foreign con- 
vui^rn'^"" 9^'^^sts are resumed, and Asia subdued hy Pompey, 3939, (81 
A.M. 3934. y^o.i's) Numantia, in Spain, rebels, 3864. (See Spain.) 
64 Numancia The popular leaders, Tiberius Gracchun, (3871,) and Caius 
83Gracci:ua! Gracckus, (38*^3,) both killed in the tumults which they 
93Numidia. excited in the city. The horrid Jugurtha, dependent king 
3Teutim''s' ofNumidia, braved and baffled the Roman armies 5 years, 
i3Sociaivvar. (.3893 — 3^93.) At last, Marius and Sylla dragged this mon- 
tator^'^ "^ ster in chains to Rome, where he was left to starve 9 days 
33Mithridatxc],i ^ dungeon. For 8 years the German savages, Teutones 
and Cimbri, (3895 — 3903,) ravaged Gaul in Italy till they 
were routed and slaughtered by Marius, 3903. Social war, (war of 
Rome with her Italian allies, called Socii,) 3913. After a waste of 
300,000 lives, the Italian allies obtained the right of citizenship, (vot- 
ing and holding offices at Rome.) Next Mithridales broke out of Pon- 
tus, overran Asia Minor and Greece, and caused to be killed 80,000 
Roman citizens that were prowling about Asia Minor, (a horrid exe- 
cution!) The bloody victories of Sylla in Greece, pressed Mithridates 
back into Pontus. But the atrocious struggle of Marius and Sylla 
for the command in this war, made Rome itself a scene of slaughter 
and carnage. Twice in his turn, each party prevailed, and four 
times the streets of Rome were deluged with Roman blood : Marius, 
the second time, while Sylla was in Greece; and Sylla, the second 
time, when he returned from Greece. (Young Pompey, Csesar, 
Cicero, and Cato, begin to appear.) Scrtorius of the Marian faction, 
dismembers Spain, (see Spain.) Pompey has to subdue a rebellion in 
Africa, Sertorius in Spain, the slaves and gladiators in Italy, [servile 
war,) the pirates that covered the Mediterranean, and finally Mithri- 
dates, who had broken loose again in Asia Minor. 

Foreign conquests resumed with intervals of civil wars. After con- 
quering Mithridates, Pompey subjected Asia to the Eupirates, 3939. 
(Asia had long been tributarjr.) Four years Rome was agitated by 
the flagitious quarrels and intrigues of three profligate men, Ceesar, 
Pompey. and Crassus, who finding all Rome (except Cato and Cicero) 
A.M. 3900. enlisted in favour of one or the other, united their interests, 
44 istTrium- formed the first triumvirate, ( three men united,) and took the 
^Cssar, Pom. charge of the world into their own hands, 3944. Pompey 
pey.,.''fa;jsu3. had already won his laurels, and therefore reposed at home. 
~^Z\-^' Crassus went to gather the spoils and riches of the East, 
virate "'*"' and met in Parthia a most deplorable fate. Cassar took the 
ny*LepWus° '""'^ Gauls for his share, and immortalized his name in eight 
Ta'civu War. splendid campaigns. (See Gaul.) After that, the world was 



76 HISTORY OP SYRIA. 

not large enough to contain two such illustrious chiefs ; Pomp'ey 
arrayed the forces of the East, and Caesar those of the West, and 
Pompey being defeated at Pharsalia, in Thessaly, and killed in 
Egypt, Csesar had only to conquer Pompey's sons in Spain, and 
Cato in Africa, to be undisputed sovereign and dictator. His glory 
and triumph soon terminated in his tragic death, leaving the 
world to be disputed, first between Octavius Caesar and Mark Antony, 
and (after they united with Lepidus in the 2d triumvirate) between 
them and Caesar's murderers, (Brutus and Cassius.) The latter 
arrayed the forces of the East against Octavius and Antony, and were 
conquered at Philippi, 3962. Octavius and Antony, after dividing the 
world between them ten years, disputed the possession of it at Actium, 
when Octavius of the West defeated Antony of the East, and remained 
sole master of the Roman world, 3973. 

During his long and prosperous reign, he disguised the most per- 
fect despotism under the ancient forms of the commonwealth. And 
thus, 3973, we arrive at imperial Rome, {that is, Rome gov- 
A M 3973. gj-fied by emperors.) The pacific plans of Augustus (Octavius) 
pire. embraced the judicious policy of diffusing the Roman lan- 

guage and institutions over the whole Roman world. Latin 
was the state language of the whole empire ; and while the Greek was 
the popular language of the East, and the language of science, the La- 
tin became common in Africa, Spain, Gaul, and finally in Britain, 
which was not added to the Roman empire till after the death of Au,. 
gustus. 



Syria after the death of Alexander. 

Syria, or Syro Media, under the Seleucidae, was not merely Syria 
Proper, but comprised a vast extent of country, from the Bosphorus to 
the Indus, including a great part of the empire of Persia in Asia. 

KINGS OF SYRIA. 
Seletjctts L Nicator. Seleucus IL Callinicus, 

Antiochus L Soter. Seleucus IK. Ceranmis. 

Antjochus II. Theos. Antiochus III. the Great.* 

A M^37b3 Seleucus, one of the four conquerors of Antigonus, at Ip- 
B.o.'aoi. sus, received Asia as his share of the spoils, and established 
his capital at Antioch, which he built, besides many other 
Lysim'achus! cities. He wrested Thrace and Mucedon from Lysimachus, 
A.M.|?^- but was soon after assassinated by Ptoleviy Ceraunus, whom 
■ ■ ' he had protected. He was distinguished for justice, cle- 
mency, and love of learning ; and surnamed Nicator, from his success 

* From Seleucus Nicator to Antiochus the Great, Antiochus, Antiochus ; Se^ 
leucus, Seleucus. 

These »re all the Greek kings of Syria thgit {are important, the remainder may be 
found in the Appendix. 



HISTORY OP EGYPT. 77 

in war. The great library of the Athenians was restored to them by 
this prince. 

Syria, under Seleucus Nicator and his descendants, as far as Antio- 
chus the Great, was independent. These two were the first and last 
great, the only great princes of the Seleucids. 

Ant.Theos. Antiochus Theos saw the extremes of his empire falling 
A-M.:"44. off and rebelling. Parthia, Bactria, India, and Asia Minor 

resisted his authority. 
AnttheGreat. Antiochus the Great thought he had revived the lustre of 
^'.c.'IsE^' ^^^ house and extent of his empire, but he was the last inde- 
pendent and first vassal king of Syria. He invadetl the re- 
volted provinces ; and in the attempt to subdue Asia Minor became 
Tributary to 'Involved in war with Rome, He was humbled by Scipio 
Rome. Asiaticus, in the battle of Magnesia, and treated with ex- 
B.c. 191.' treme severity. The remaining Seleucidas were subject to 

the Romans. 

Seleucus Philopater and Antiochus Epiphanes quarrelled, and their 

families reigned by turns. Epiphanes invaded Egypt, and ignomini- 

Jerusaiein ouslj withdrew on the remonstrance of a Roman ambassa- 

taken. dor. He took Jerusalem; and, by his excessive cruelties, 

B.C. 170.' drove the Jews to assert their rights, and uhimately, under 

the Maccabees, to free their country from the Syrians. 

The remaining history of Syria is a succession of murders and usur- 

Tigranes. p^tions, Until the people, disgusted by the manners and dis- 

AM.3921. sensions of their monarchs, placed themselves under the 

Pompey.' sway of Tigraues, king of Armenia j and in the succeeding 

%^c. 65?"'' rsign Syria was reduced by Pompey to a Roman province. 



History of Egypt, from its conquest by Cambyses, to 
its final subjugation by Augustus. 

Alexander Egypt was Conquered by Alexander in 3673. Upon the 
Egypt. division of the empire, after the death of Alexander, began 
bc.'^l' the splendid age of the Ptolemies. 

Egypt was filled with Greeks and Hebrews, Alexandria 
became the seat of schools and learning: the museum was established, 
where all who chose to devote themselves to any department of learn- 
ing could have apartments, and live on royal bounty. 

KINGS OF EGYPT. 

The dynasty of the Ptolemies lasted from the battle of Ipsus, 3703, 
;to the battle of Actium, 3973. 



78 HISTORYOPEGYPT. 

KINGS OF EGYPT. 

Ptolemy Lagus.* Ptolkmt Alexander. 

Ptolemy Philadelphus. Cleopatra. 

Ptolemy Evergetis Ptolemy Alexander II. 

Ptolemy Philopater. Ptolemy Auletes. 

Ptolemy Epiphanes. Berenice. 

Ptolemy Philometer. Ptolemy and Cleopatra. 

Ptolemy Physcon. Cleopatra II. conquered 3973. 
Ptolemt Luthyrus. 

La"us. Ptolemy Soter, or Lagus, was an excellent prince. He 

A.M.°367L esteemed the welfare of his subjects the first obiect of g-overn- 

ment. A lover himself of the arts and sciences, they rose, 

under his patronage, to a splendour which rivalled their state in the best 

days of Greece. He was the founder of the famous Alexandrian 

Library. 

Philadelphus. Ptolemy Philadephus inherited the talents of his father, 
A.M. 3741. thoug-h he had considerable blemishes of character. It was 
by the order of this prince that seventy-two interpreters made 
the celebrated translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek; called, 
from their number, the Septuagint. 
Evergfitis. Plolemy Evergetis trod in the footsteps of his predecessors, 
A.M. 3758. and derived his honourable surname of Beneficent from his 
successful promotion of the prosperity of his people. In the 
beginning of his reign, having waged a successful war with Antiochus 
of Syria, for the recovery of some provinces of his hereditary domini- 
ons, and returning with immense spoils through Judea, he offered sa- 
crifice, as Josephus tells us, to the God cf Israel, in thanksgiving for 
his victories. 

When we pass Evergetis the Ptolemies degenerate. 
Philopater was a cruel prince, and his reign was disgraced by a 
long and sanguinary persecution of the Jews. 

Epiphanes. Epiphanes was the first Egyptian tributary to the Romans. 
a.m. 3796. He was compelled to seek their protection by the threats of 
Philip and Antiochus the Great. A king may be at the 
same time a master and a slave. From the reign of Epiphanes Egypt 
was completely subordinate to the Romans, the Egyptian Greek 
princes being permitted to reign, on condition that they gave no um- 
brage to Rome. 

Auletes "^^^ history of Auletes, the Piper, is a more striking illus- 
A.M 3935. tration of the degraded state of the country than any other ; 
■ ■ ■ he was a sort of puppet danced about by the Romans ; they 
put him on and ofFthe throne at their pleasure. 

Egypt would not have so long delayed its entire subjection to Rome, 
if it had not been for the internal relations of that empire, and still more 

209 Yeare. * From Ptolemy Lagus 3,700, to Ptolemy Luthyrus, 3,900, are 

BjC'. 30^' ^^^ years. The initials will help us to remember the names. From 1st 

Piolemy L. to 2d Ptolemy L. there are 6 Piolrmies; viz. Philadelphus 

and Evergetes, Philopater and Epiphanes, Philometer and Physcon, then Lathyrus. 

After that there are 3 A's ; viz. Alexander, Alexander, Auletes ; and, finally, there 

is the last GjceeJk sovereign of Egypt, Cleopatra, 



HISTORYOFSPAIN. 79 

the charms of Cleopatra. She, by her connexion with Csesar and An- 
tony, retained her kingdom and even enlarged it. 

The history of Egypt now became intimately connected with that 
Cleopatra. ^^^ Romc. As long as Ccesar lived Cleopatra had his pro- 
A M. 3952. tection. After Csesar's death she embraced the party of the 
triumvirs; and prevailed on them, on the death of her bro- 
ther, to acknowledge as king her son Ptolemoeus Cassario. But the 
deep passion which Antony conceived for her chained her to his fate. 
Battle of After the unsuccessful battle of Actium, 3973, Antony 
Aciium. and Cleopatra were pursued by Augustus to Egypt ; and 
B.C. 31. ' during the reign of Alexander they both killed themselves, 
the one with the sword, the other by the sting of an asp. 



Ancient Spain, exhibiting its various JYames and 
Divisions, with an account of its Inhabitants, Colo- 
nies, Subjugation, S^c. 

COUNTRY &. 

SpahwEnsMsii SPAiN Is the English translation of the Latin Hispania ; 
Not including but Hispania included the ancient Lusitania, answering 
^"'ponugai""'" nearly to the modern Portugal. 

inan!f Denoting a Hesperia was also applied to the same country, a 
country west of name expressive of its western position in relation to 

Rome. T, 

Rome. 
Hispania (Latin.) HispANiA is the Roman or Latin name, which they 
(Including Lusi- borrowed from the Carthaginians, from whom they took 
this country about 3800, A.M. 

Iberia was the Greek name, derived from the river 

F^^«ta ^ uedOTi Iberus (Ebro.) The Greeks at first applied this name 

to "the Mediter- only to the Country along the Mediterranean coast from 

ranean coast. ^^^^^ (Cadiz) to the Rhone in Gaul ; while they termed 

the Atlantic coast Tartesses, and the interior with Gaul, 

under the general name Celtica. But their intercourse 

with the Romans after Spain became a Roman province, 

(A.M, 3800,) taught them to apply their name to the whole 

country. 

s an^?d^3^?Ene- Spain was inhabited by several distinct people, gene- 

iish.) rally mixed races, whose origin was very obscure. The 

A'lenerai^name Latin Hispani (masculine plural of Hispanus) was a 

for the ccuiberi, general term for all these people. 

bri, Astures and Celtiberi, (Celts and Iberians mixed together.) This 
Sn^^^'inhabtt- people occupied an indefinite extent along the Mediterra- 
ing Spain. nean, and an ample space in the interior, particularly con- 

The^^GreeTks at tiguous to the river Ibcrus (Ebro.) They consisted of a 
first applied this fixture of Native Iberi, and Celts or Gauls. They made 

name only to the . i i /-, i j t-. ,^ •».-r 

people along the a long resistance both to Carthage and Rome. (See Na- 

Meditoranean ^^^^^^^ SertOriuS, &C., bcloW.) 



80 HISTORYOFSPAIN. 

Assures"' Cantabri (in the northwest.) These were a warlike 

Caiiaici." and ferocious people, occupying the northwest of Spain 
on the Bay of Biscay, (Sinus Cantdbricus.) They made 
a long and obstinate resistance to Rome, and were not 
finally subdued till the time of Augustus. The Astures 
and Callaici were contiguous to the Cantabri on the 
west. They long resisted Rome. 

LusiTANi (Portuguese.) These inhabited nearly the 

limits of modern Portugal. They long withstood the 

Roman armies, and their frequent rebellions occupied the 

armies of Dolabella, Scipio, Julius Caesar, &c. (See Nu- 

DivisioNs. mantia, Sertorius, &c., below.) 

Tarraconensis, or 

Murcia,vaiencia, Tarraconensis, or CiTERiOR, (Hither Spain.) This 
Catalonia, Arra- was One of the two grand divisions of Spain, including the 
^°"' castiiey*"*^' the north, east, and interior ; (modern Murcia, Valen- 

Biscay, Leon. _{„ J^.„ \ 
Austurias. *'^^' '^'-■) 

Gallicim. 

Ulterior (Farther Spain.) This was the second grand 
ULTERIOR, division, including the south and west; viz. Beetica and 

Lusitania. 
<Grenada,°Anda- B^TicA, the most fertile part of Spain, on the river 
lusia.) Baetis, (Guadelquiver,) from which it derives its name. 
Lusitania LtTsiTANiA, finally was made a separate province, when 

*^ gal.) """ Bsetica received the same distinction. 

The application of this name (Tartessus) is very diffi- 
Taitessus. cult: it is generally supposed to apply to a city or district 
about the mouth of the Bastis (Guadelquiver.) 
m V .. T, , Some suppose that Tarshish, in the Scriptures, some- 

Tarshi3h.--Balea- . i^"^, i /m \i.-i 

ric isieg.— ivica, times denotes the same place (iartessus;) but certainly 

Majorca,Minorca„Qj^l^g^yg_ 
COLONIES & 

coNauESTS. Spain was early visited for purposes of commerce, bv 

Gades, (Cadiz,) K ,„, . .-' \ r> ^u ■ ■ r^ ■ » U 

(Phenician.) Sa- Tyrians, (Phenicians,) Carthaginians, Grecians, &c., who 
ciaru^"New^Car- established colonies, and planted cities on its coasts and 
thage, (Cathagin- islands, (Gades, &c.) 

ian.) ^ ' 

Conquests of Before A.M. 3500, the enterprising Carthaginians had 
Spam. subdued a considerable extent of the sea coast of Spain in 
the southeast, as well as the Balearic islands. After the 
Lofi'of^'icrry & ^"^ of the first Punic war, (3740—3764,) the Carthagin- 
thesea. ians, having lost the command of the sea and their rich, 
ouests'ln Spain possessioos in Sicily, pushed their conquests in Spain^ 
(under Haraiclar, A'sdrubal, and Hannibal,) to the river 
in the affairs of Iberus (Ebro.) The jealous Romans now interposed, 
Spam. jqq]^ i^j^g Greek city of Saguntum, and the whole coast 
Hannibal takes 'whence to Gaul, under their protection, and made Carthage 
Saguntum, and Stipulate to Carry their arms no farther north. The tak- 
marciws into ^^^ ^^ Saguntum by Hannibal, and his celebrated march 
through Gaul into Italy, was the cause and commence- 
Second Punic, ment of the second Punic war, which resulted in trans- 
ferring Spain from Carthage to Rome, and reduced Car- 



HISTORY OV" SPAIN. 81 

Romans conquer thaffe from the Condition of a great empire to that of an 

Spam, and hum- , ° , , . , r , l 

bie Carthage, af- humble citv, at the mercy oi the conqueror. 

ter Hannibal had 
harai-sed ihem in 
Italy 15 years. . r m l • mi_ ' 

Romans send ar- Notwithstanding the victories of Trebia, Thrasymene, 
thSeTnlJainrfc Cannte, &c., and the victorious career of Hannibal in Italy 
young Scipio'a- for fifteen years, the Romans found armies to send into 
Sfdealh, Jn- Spain, which, after some disasters, the young Scipio sub- 
quers Spain', and (Juedj signally avenging the slaughter of his father, un- 
cafwhere°heac- cle, and two Roman armies. With great difficulty, hei 
of Africanu™ '^en obtained leave of the Roman senate to pass over to 
elder.) By con- Africa ; and there Hannibal, who was recalled from Italy 
rmelecomesan to defend Carthage, was defeated in the fatal field of Zama, 
empire, and soon ^jyi 3g03. This (as observed above) at once raised 
poiverfuiin Rome to the rank of an empire, while Carthage only ex-- 
^'^eece^Egm, fc ig^g^ jQ tremble and obey 55 years longer, and was then 
Carthage hum- destroyed, A.M. 3858, in the third Punic war, by Scipio 

bled 3803 — de- . /. • , i 

strayed 3»«58. Afpicanus the youngor. 

Third Punic. r j -n • u u 

Romans have to After Spain was transferred to Rome, it cost the Ko- 
tk)n^s"\nToto ""^"s many hard efforts to subdue the interior and distant 
reconquer Spain nations (Celtibeii, &c.) who long resisted, and often re- 
after they get it 1 11 J 
from Carthage. Delled. • i , i 

Numantia.-Re- 3864. Numantia, a city in the interior, assisted by the 
t'o"3878^'°'viri^ Celtiberi and Lusitani, baffled the Roman arms fourteen 
thus was at first years. The celebrated Viriathus was leader of the Span- 
thmr ^general and -^^ confederacy, till he was treacherously killed. 
Sertorius.-Gen- Eight years, from 3923 to 3931, Spain rebelled again, 
SaTom^a^tls and resisted Rome under Sertorius, a Roman general of 
to 3931. All the the Marian faction, who fled from the dictator Sylla, 
deTaTdtL^'pSm-Many Roman armies were defeated in the contest, till 
pey arrived. Pompey finished the war, 3931. 

Spain (rich in mines and tributes) continued, from the 
guS,\nobedi- time of Augustus, generally an obedient province till about 
//h*Pn°^.^n?'„f A.D. 500, that is, about 700 years from the time it was 
goid,sUver, &c.) taken from Carthage, (B.C. 204.) 



Jlncient Gaul, exhibiting its various Names and Divi- 
sions, with an account of its Inhabitants, Colonies, 
Subjugation^ S^c, 

(FraKprench.) Modem France, stands nearly for ancient Gaul. 
(English from the Gaul, including France, Belgia, Helvetia, &c. 

Latin GalUa.) ° 

Gallia. Gallia is the Roman name of Gaul, from Gael of the 

(GaUi or Gauls.) natives. 

„ . ,^ , , Gael was the native name of the Celts or Aborigines 

Gael. (Cells.) . ^ , 

of Gaul. 

11 



82 HISTORYOP GAUL. 

Ceitica These terms strictly apply to the Celts, or the country 

^^*GaiatVa."* ^ they occupied. The Greeks sometimes applied them to 

(Galatians.) all Gaul. 

(Trani-aipina.) In the commoii acceptation of the term Gallia, its 
Ah)"' toThe'^Ro^ application is the same without the epithet Transalpina, 
mans, uiinrior or as with it. But with the epithet it implies another or se- 
Originaiaiidpi'cv cond Gaul, and means distinctly original Gaul, Gaul 
per. It irnbracd Proper, in Opposition to Cisalpine, or Italian Gaul. 

inou ^* rn P r3 nc6 * jt ' 

Belgium, the ' Gallia embraced the whole extent of country between 
lavoy'ar&ve'' the Alps, Rhine, (in its entire course,) North Sea, Chan- 
tia, and Germany nel, Bay of Eiscay, Pyrenees, and Mediterranean. 

westoftlieKhine. "' j j 

Gauiwh settio- Besides the proper and original Gaul, Gallias or Gauls 

ineiiLsin Italy, ^^^^ multiplied by provincial divisions, and by new set- 

Gaiiia (Cisaipi- tlemen's bevond the original limits; the two Gauls or the 

na ) Gaul this ^ ^ i i ■ • 

sidethe Alps. (;i- lour Gauls being common expressions. 
Gam. "secondor ^^out 3400 A.M., (B.C. 600,) in the time of the elder 
Italian Gaui.from Tarquin, a vvhole nation of Gauls or Celts passed from 
Rubicon! luchid- Original Gaul into Italy, and encroaching upon the Tus- 
wh'ich ""was'^not <^^"S' ^^"^0 were then spread far north, settled in the country 

occupied by between the Alps and the river Rubicon; and thus form- 
^*"'*' ed a second or Italian Gaul, distinguished from the origin- 
al Gaul by the epithet Cisalpine, which meansthis side of the Alps in 
relation to the Romans. 

Senna Gallia. Two hundred years later, 3600, (B.C. 400,) another 
A second Italian Gaulish swarm poured into Italy, and passing through 

Gaul, eettled by ^,. , . ,^ i .1 j i .1 tt 1 • . .i_ x- 

Gaiii senones Cisalpme GauJ, Settled along the Umbrian coast south oi 
rTi'^i^'r'" of the Rubicon, to a place called from them Sena Gallia, 

Gaul ; who burn- o, • t s i i ■ i^ 1 • 1 

ed Rome, under (now Senigaglia,) by which name we may designate also 
the first Biemius. ^^^ yvhole Settlement. It was this savage horde that in- 
vaded Tuscany and burned Rome, 3614, and never ceased to invade or 
rebel till nearly exterminated, 3721. 

_ . . . About 3725, another prodigious swarm of Gauls, un- 
Gau1,'orGaunn fl^r a second Brennus, invaded Macedon and Greece, 
Asia Minor Ga- which, as weW as Asia Minor, they long sconrged with 

latiahcniganame ' , , . ^.' , -^ i^ • ■ °r .1 

applied by the war and desolation, aggravating the calamities oi Alex- 
Gre^eks to ancient 3j^j]g^.)g guccessors, till they finally Settled in the central 
part of Asia Minor, and formed a fourth Gaul, under the 
Greek name Galatia. 

I'rovinciai Gauls. This division of Transalpine Gaul is also called 
cia or' ProWnda Pi'ovincia Romana, (the Roman Province,) it being the 
Romana,) first first Roman province in Gaul, and held a considerable 
in Gaul Tn^'the time before Julius Cssar conquered the rest. It lay along 
aim Alp" ■'''called ^^6 Alps and Mediterranean, comprising modern Pro- 
aiso Narb'oneii«is. vence, Dauphini, Savoy, and Languedoc. 
Gallia (Aquitani- Aquitania embraced at first only the country actually 
ca ) Aquitania. inhabited bv Aquitani between the Garonne and the Pvre- 
Gaul nees; but Augustus enlarged it to the Loire. 

Gallia (Ceitica Gallia Celtica OR PROPER at first embraced a great 
w'^*centrli'"and P^^^ ^^ ^^^ country inhabited by the Celts, from the 
S.E. of Gaiii, la- Garonne, to the Seine, Maine, Upper Rhine, Alps, &c. 



HISTORYOFGAUL. 83 

habited by Celts Its extremes were Brittany and Helvetia. But Augus- 
caiied^arso^Lu'g- 'US greatly reduced its extent by additions to Aquitania 
dunensis. and Belgica. 

Gallia (Belgica) Gallia Belgica, as 3 province, contained more than 
BeiKic Gaul: in- Belgia Proper, that is, more than was actuallv occupied 

eluding moretnan i ^ , t-» i • t r r^ c ' •» itUIv, 

Beigiat and en- by Belgas or Belgians. Julius Caesar conhnes it witnm 
lus^onth^e^o.u'h- ^^*^ ^^i"^' Marne, Vosges, (mountains,) Rhine, and Sea. 
but Germania se- Augustus took from Celtica, Helvetia and the country 
parattd on the ^^ ^^^ Sequani, (now Franche-Compte,) and added them 

to BelLjica. 
GaUia (Germani- The eastern part of Belgica along the Rhine and Meuse 
ca.) Genii^nia being Settled by Germans, was separated by Augustus 
many on 'this side Under the name of Germania, (Germany ;) which was 
Isho'^r^BeigifGer- distinguished from the proper Germany east of the Rhine 
many west of the by the epithet Cisrhena, (this side of the Rhine — the west 
^'"°*' side.) This Germany west of the Rhine might be term- 

ed Gallia Germanica. or Belgia Germanica. It was distinguished by 
Augustus into Germania Prima (firsi) and Secunda (second.) 

Gaul, Gallia, France, &c. In a loose and familiar sense, these 
several names are concurrent in their application; but their strict and 
critical application is not only very different, but often difficuh to ascer- 
tain ; being all of them loosely and variously applied by different au- 
thors, and even by the same author in different places. 

There is an original sense of the word Gallia as deriv- 
the term Gallia, ed from Gael, which would restrain its application to the 
proper country of Gaels or Celts, the aborigines of Gaul. 
But a principle of convenience extended its application to Aquitania 
and Belgia, which were not inhabited by Galli proper, or Celts, strictly 
so called. The final and settled application of this word was, to cer- 
tain well defined natural limits, including Celts, Belgians, and Aqui- 
tanians. 

The word Celtce, Celts, &c., has a much stricter applica- 

the^'temi'' c" u*^ *^°" ^° '■^^ ^^"'^^ ''^^" ^^^ word Galli has; by Celts we mean 
Celts. ' the aborigines of Gaul, Spain, Britain, &c., a people said 
to have been entirely distinct and peculiar in their origin, 
language, and customs. All Gauls then were not Celts; nor were all 
Celts Gauls. The Celts of Spain and Britain were not Gauls, nor 
were the Gauls of Belgia and Aquitania Celts We apply the word 
Celts to a primitive aboriginal race, whose Gaelic descendants have 
been reduced by national extermination to a iew Welsh, Irish, and 
Highland Scotch. 

The divisions of Gauls by Julius Csesar into Celts, 
"■Gaui"^° Aquitanians, and Belgians, and the corresponding divi- 
sion of the country into the provinces of Celtica, Aquitan- 
ica, and Belgica, was simple and convenient. But the changes made 
in the limits of these divisions by Augustus, as well as other consider- 
ations, have perplexed the geography of Gaul, by giving countenance 
and currency to applications of the same terms, seemingly inconsistent 
and contradictory. 

ThHse subdivi- To ^xprpss the distinction between these ancient and 
sioos conftised obscure races in confident and unqualified terms, is abus- 



84 



HISTORY OF GAUL, 



ing all readers and learners. That there were three distinct races, 
viz. Belgians, Celts, and Aqiiitanians, in Gaul, we cannot question. But 
there must have been many savage tribes not precisely assignable to 
either of these divisions. If many tribes could be designated as Celts 
or Belgians, there must have been also many that could not be clearly 
and distinctly either Celts or Belgians. This sufficiently accounts for 
the vague and unsatisfactory explanations we get from our books. 

The detail of early history developes the causes of our 
confueion. perplexities on this subject. 1 he elans of each great di- 
vision were distinguished among themselves by striking 
peculiarities; and roving savages were continually changing their 
residence, blending, exterminating, dsc. The Cells mixed with Bel- 
gians and Aquitanians, and Gauls mixed with Germans and Spaniards. 
The unsettled hordes of Gaul and Germany were always in commo- 
tion ; rushing in resistless bodies from one country into the other, 
blending, exterminating, &c. Germans were found in Gaul, and Gauls 
were found in Germany, Italy, Asia JMinor, &c. 

Julius Csesar tells us that the Belgic Gauls were for 
inanMttaction^ the most part originally Germans, anH that of all the 
Gaulic nations only these German Gauls could resist the 
fury of their brethren, the Teutones and Cimbri. The Belgic Gauls 
were doubtless successive hordes of German emigrants. The earliest 
emigrants were crowded by later ones towards the Seine and North 
Sea; and in the time of Caesar, the nearer you approached the Rhine, 
the more obvious was the German extraction of the people. This suf- 
ficiently explains why the number, extent, and distinctive character of 
the Belgians are so illy defined. Caesar allows but a few real Bel- 
gians, and no author furnishes a distinct characteristic for the Belgic 
race. It may be observed, that from the time of Cae.sar to our own 
time, no geographical term has been more vague and fluctuating than 
that of Belgium or Belgia. 

The invasion of Gaul and Italy by the savage hosts of 
darier'^caii °"be Germany, called Teutones and Cimbri, 389.5, is fam.iliar 
fixed. to most readers. Though they were nearly destroyed by 
Gauls, Cells &c. Marius, 3903, yet in their career of eight years, they must 
have caused great changes in the population of the coun- 
tries through which they passed. In Caesar's first campaign in Gaul, 
he had to encounter the whole nation of Helvetia, who had left their 
inhospitable country to seek a more favourable settlement in the lands 
of the iEdui, between the Soane and the Loire. The next formidable 
foe he met, was the Germans, under their king, Ariovislus, who had 
crossed the Rhine, and subdued the northeast of Gaul. Other emigra^ 
tions more ancient and obscure, are mentioned by historians; but pro-- 
bably enough has been said to satisfy every reader that no precise 
boundaries can be fixed for Gauls, Celts, Belgians, or Germans, in ■ 
these early ages. 

Tacitus advances the opinion that the Germans were 

respmi'ng*the"or" ^n indigenous or aboriginal race. He might better have 

gin of ihe Ger- said, that neither he nor any body else knew much about 

them, only that they had no fixed residences, and were 



HISTORYOFGAUL. 85 

divided into innumerable clans, devoted to war, rapine, and all savage 
pursuits. 

His account of the origin of their name is sufficiently 
name German, curious and characteristic to merit attention. He says it 
was modern or of recent origin. A German people, call- 
ed Tungrians in his time, and settled along the Meuse in Belgic Gaul, 
had assumed, when they crossed the Rhine, the frightful name of 
Gher-men, (war-men,) to spread a panic before them ; which frightful 
name was perpetuated as we find in Cassar, and being propagated by 
Gauls and Romans, it recrossed the Rhine, and became the general 
name for the people on the east of that river, as well as for those who 
had settled on the west of it. 

The fate and fortunes of Gaul, after it became a Roman province, 
were chiefly influenced by the great exposure to barbarous incursions 
on the German frontier. 

The long struggle of the Gauls with Rome exhibited 
itanan'"o'"cisai- the Unequal conflict of brutal ferocity and wild enterprise 
pine Gaul by the against disciplined valour and deep-wOrking policy. From 
the burning of Rome by the Galli Senones, 3614, the 
Italian Gauls continued the implacable enemies of Rome about 165 
years, till those of the north were finally subdued, about 3780, between 
the first and second Punic wars. 

The victories of Hannibal in the north of Italy, 3786, encouraged'the 
Gauls to assist him about fifteen years in Italy; but the triumphs of 
Scipio Africanus the elder in Spain and Africa, re-established the Ro- 
man dominion both over Gauls in the north, and Greeks in the south 
of Italy. It was a part of Roman policy to secure their conquests 
by fixing garrisons and planting colonies among the conquered people. 
The Romans early maintained a friendly intercourse 
Tran"sa?pineGaui with the Greeks of Marseilles, whom they protected 
against their barbarous neighbours. They finally got 
a firm footing in their new province of Gaul, (Provincia Romana,) by 
planting colonies and establishing garrisons there, particularly after the 
famous defeat of the Teutones by Marius at Aquae Sextiae, near Mar- 
seilles. 

Caesar held the two Gauls about ten years, from 3944 to 3954, and 
employed eight bloody campaigns in his cruel conquest. The inva- 
sion of the Helvetians and Germans, and the intestine division among 
the Gaulic tribes, soon opened a fine field for his splendid military ta- 
lents. All these enemies were speedily subdued or annihilated. And 
when his boundless rapacity and wanton slaughter of enemies and in- 
surgents provoked new enemies and fearful combinations against him, 
he had the address and genius to baffle and confound the whole, when 
,any other man would have been overwhelmed. 



A CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX, 

Containing the most important Events, from A. M. 
3750 to 4554. 



3250 Rome built. History of Assyria, Babylon, Media, and Lydia 
begin to be known about the same period. 

3264 Ahaz, king of Judah, attacked by Pekah, king of Israel, and 
Ahaz. Rezen, king of Syria, invites Tiglath-Pileser king of Assyria, 
istCaptivity and gives him the treasures of the holy temple, for his assis- 
tance against his invaders. Tiglath-Pileser carries the Sy- 
rians captive, subdues their country, and also carries the four 
northern and three eastern tribes of Israel captive. Com- 
mences the first captivity, leaving only the two tribes of 
Ephraim and Manasseh half tribe. 

3283 First captivity completed by Shalmanezer, who took Sama- 
C'ompieted. jj^, and subjugated the country now called Samaria. 

3379 Nabopolassar, a Babylonian, revolts from Saracus, the last 
Babylonish king of Nineveh or Assyria. Destroys Nineveh, and make.s 
jeremVaii. Babylon the seat of the Babylonish empire. 

3398 

sdorBabyio-Nebuchadnezzar, now joint king with his father Nabopo- 

nish captivity lassar, invades Judah — takes Daniel the prophet, and cora- 
7o'year3^tiU mences the second captivity, or that of Judah. 

3468. 

3400 Nebuchadnezzar reigns alone, on the death of his father. 
3406 

2d taking of . , . , 

the 2d capti- Ezekiel, With many other Jews, taken to Babylon. 

Jeconiah. 
Zedekiah. 

3416 Jerusalem taken, the city and temple destroyed, and the Jews 
comp?eted'b^ (that is, the people of Jerusalem) carried captive. This is 
thesdandiasttiig completion of the second captiviiv. 

taking. ^ r J 

3426 About the middle of the siege of Tyre, by Nebuchadnezzar, 
Siege of Tyre, ^vhich lasted 13 years. New city on an island. No spoils 
found in the old city, the inhabitants having removed, with 
their effects, to their new city. 

3436 About this time Nebuchadnezzar returns from his invasion 
of Egypt, laden with spoils ; but Egypt was only spoiled, not 
subjected to Babylon. 



INDEX. 87 

3446 Cyrus of Media or Persia, in conjunction with his uncle 
Cyaxares, (or, as some say, alone, having dethroned his 
grandfather Astyagas,) commences his career of conquest, 
attacking the dominions of the king of Babylon, reducing 
Armenia, and then marching into Asia Minor. 

3456 Cyrus conquers Croesus, king of Lydia, whose dominions 
comprehended nearly the whole of Asia Minor. The ^o- 
lian, Ionian, and Dorian Greeks, having been subjected by 
Croesus and his predecessors, now reluctantly yield to Cyrus, 
and become subject to the king of Persia. 

3466 
Babylonish Babylon taken and the Persian empire founded, iust 200 

emp-reends. •'ir-nU-T j r^ 

Persian emp. years Deiore Philip conquered ureece. 

begins. Susa 
the capital. 

3468 Jews restored to their country by Cyrus, but still held in po- 
litical subjection to the kings of Persia. 2d Temple begun 
at Jerusalem, just 200 years before Philip died and Alexander 
began his reign. 

3478 Cyrus dies and Cambyses begins, (actually 3475,) and in 
Egypt added 3478 Cambyses invades Egypt, and adds it to the Persian 

to the Persian . •' b J r ' 

empire. empire. 

3488 Darius Hystaspes, who began to reign in 3483, reduces Ba- 
bylon, which had revolted from him, after a siege of twenty 
months. 

Thrace added Darius, after an invasion of the Scythians, on the coast of 
tothePersian the Black Sea, (unfortunate) conquers Thrace on his return. 

empire. ^ ' '■ 

3498 

jnji^ gjjgj Darius invades and conquers India; which, in tribute, was 

to the Persian the richcst province of the Persian empire. 

empire. 

3500 Persian invasion, 25 years, until 3025. 

3505 lonians subdued. The Greeks had struggled five years in 
Asia Minor, Thrace, and the islands of the-^Egean Sea. The 
king of Persia then prepared to carry the war into Greece; 
but his preparations were slow and tedious. 

3510 Mardonius despatched for Greece with an army ; has his 
army cut off in Thrace, and loses his fleet on the coast. 

3515 Battle oi Marathon; Miltiades, father of Cimon, chief; 

.;^^j^^p^''^ Aristides and Themistocles also present. Datis and Arta- 

pionofaii phernes, generals of Darius. lO.OOOAthenians defeat 110,000 

a,,*'pe^f|.*"'^' Persians. Here the Greeks learned to conquer vastly supe- 

Poet^scbyiu3.rior armies, in point of number, and to despise the motley, 

ill-assorted troops of Asia. 1000 Plataeans fought with the 

Athenians, but the Spartans had no share in the battle of 

Marathon. 



88 



INDEX. 



3520 Darius Hystaspes dies. Herodotus, the first profane histo- 
rian, born. Xerxes subdues a revolt in Egypt; and by that 
is delayed in making a second expedition into Greece. — 
Though Herodotus was not born till 3520, yet his history is 
considered authentic, though extravagant, from 3500 ; as he 
could ascertain the particulars of the C4recian and Persian 
wars, from 3500, from living witnesses older than himself 
But his history of the Greeks and other nations, prior to the 
Persian wars, is full of conceits, fictions, and marvels, though 
generally founded on fact. It is remarkable that Homer, the 
first poet, Pythagorus and Thales, the first philosophers, 
and Herodotus, the first profane historian, should be among 
the most illustrious in their respective departments j yet their 
views were fanciful and often fantastic. 

3525 The great battles of Thermopylae, (Leonidas) — Artemesium, 
'^^rx^mlpT '^^^^'"**. (Themistocles) — Platea, no transcendant genius — 
Saiamis ?\k- Mycale, Xantippus, (father of Pericles) — Cimon, a valiant 
tffia. Mycaie. ^q^^]^ ^t Salamis. Greeks victorious. 

3525 The Persians cease to invade Greece. Poetry and philoso- 
ifatton"untu P^y first dawued among the Greeks of -(4 sia Minor; but after 
3555. ' these great battles and events Athens attracted the muses, 
philosophy, and liberal arts. While Xerxes invaded Greece, 
the Carthaginians, who possessed part of Sicily, being leagued 
with Xerxes, tried to conquer Syracuse and other Greek 
cities of Sicily. In this war Gelon overthrew 300,000 of 
them by surprise. From this time until the first Punic war, 
3740, the Carthaginians tried to conquer the Greeks of 
Sicily. 

Athens, which the Persians had burnt, was rebuilt and 
strengthened with walls. The Spartans remonstrate, but 
Themistocles outwitted them ; and the stone walls, the ports 
and fleets of Athens confirmed its power and pre-eminence. 

3530 In the battles of 3525, the Athenians had, from policy, allow- 
Cimon's c(i- gj ^q j^g Spartaus the nominal command, though the Athe- 
years. nian commander had, at Artemisia, Salamis, Platoea, and 
Mycaie, the deserved credit of the brilliant success. After 
this period, 3530, the haughtiness of the Spartan command- 
ers became offensive to the allies, and the command passed 
to Cinnion the Athenian ; who, by his genius and disposition, 
attached all the allies to him, and brought them into alliance 
with Athens. This great champion delivered from the yoke 
of Persia the Greeks of Thrace and Asia Minor, and of the 
islands, and Athens rose to empire. Having at her disposal 
the resources of Greece, and provoking, by her ascendancy, 
the jealousy of Sparta, Cimon enriched himself and his dear 
Athens with the spoils of Persia, Pericles cherished the 
democracy and Cimon the aristocracy of Athens. Pericles 
always tried to involve Athens and Sparta — Cimon always 
tried to allay the jealousy between the two states. 



INDEX. 8^' 

3535 Pericles supreme at Athens for 40 years. Aristides dies, 
^reer of'40*' Themistocles banished, (3533.) Double victory of Cimon over 
years. the Persian fleet and army at the Eurymedon, in Pamphylia; 
that is victory by sea and land the same day. During these 
40 years Pericles and Cimon were the master spirits ; Phi- 
dias the genius. Walls and temples rose, to fortify and 
adorn Athens. The trophies of Cimon, and the Persian spoils, 
contribute to distinguish, enrich, and embellish Athens. Peri- 
cles was more conspicuous at home ; Cimon abroad. Cimon 
the aristocrat distinguished from Pericles the democrat. 

3539 Earthquake at Sparta. Helots and Messenians revolt. Mes- 
senian war. Messenians subdued after ten years. Constant 
jealousies between Athens and Sparta from this time. 

3544 Transient revolt of Egypt under Inarus, assisted by Athens. 
The Persian yoke was always heavy upon the Egyptians. 
The Egyptians frequently revolted, and were always reduced 
with great difficulty. 

3548 Egyptians reduced to obedience. 

3550 Cimon banished, by the influence of his rival Pericles, and 
afterwards recalled by the same influence; he was accused 
of being too favourable to Sparta. 

3555 Cimon^s last victory over the Persians. He dies. The 
Grecians and Persians make peace. 

3558 Truce between Sparta and Athens for 30 years ; soon broken. 

3559 Herodotus reads his history at his adopted city, Athens. He 
was a native of Hallicarnassus in Caria. He afterwards 
read it at Olympia. 

3565 A war between Corinth and her colony, Corcyra. The as- 
sistance yielded by Athens to Corcyra in this war is the more 
immediate cause of the Peloponnesian w^ar. Thucydides, 
second historian. 

3570 Socrates flour ishes^ 

3573 Peloponnesian war. Athens and Sparta leading parties, but 
nearly all Greece engaged. t)arius Nothus assists the 
Spartans in the last year of the war. 

3575 Pericles dies the second year of the Peloponnesian war. 

3583 Peace between Athens and Sparta stipulated for 50 years; 
but so poorly observed, that the Peloponnesian war is consi- 
dered as continuing until 3600. 

3588 Disastrous expedition of Athens to attack Syracuse, which 
was assisted by its Doric mother Corinth, and afterwards by 
Sparta. In this war Alcibiades was the instigator ; Nicias 
13 



90, INDEX. 

and the intrepid Demosthenes the victims. Tremeftdous 
vicissitudes during the whole expedition, and dreadful ca- 
tastrophe. 

3590 Egypt revolts from Persia. The JEgean Sea becomes the 
scene of contest between Athens and Sparta. The generals 
of Darius Nothus assist Sparta. 

3595 Alcibiades recalled. 

3599 Battle of iEgos-Potamos. 

3600 Peloponnesian uar ends by the taking of Athens by the Spar- 
tans Darius Nothus dies. Plato, Xenophon, flourish. 

3600 The Spartans, on taking Athens, set up thirty tyrants, who 
scourge the city with horrid cruelties. 

3601 Thrasyhulus expels the tyrants, and delivers Athens. He 
had found refuge from the tyrants at Thebes. 

3602 Cyrus the vounger, governor of Asia Minor, prepares to at- 
tack and dethrone his brother Artaxerxes, king of Persia. 

3603 Defeat and death of Cyrus at Cnnaxa. Retreat of 10,000 
Greeks, conducted and narrated by Xenophon. Death of 
Socrates. 

3604 Sparta, now the predominant power of Greece, pursues a 
haughty and oppressive course with the Greeks, and makes 
war on Tissaphernes and Pharnabasus, Persian governors of 
Asia Minor. 

3607 Agesilaus elected king of Sparta, proves a great king, acts 
a conspicuous part in Asia Minor, threatening the Persian 
empire. 

3610 Corinthian league, formed by the oppressed states of Greece, 
and furnished with Persian gold, to check the daring enter- 
prises of Sparta. Conon, with his own ten ships, and a fleet 
furnished by the king of Persia, defeats the Spartans, restores 
to Athens the dominion of the sea, and returns to Athens 
after eleven years' absence ; and with Spartan spoil repairs 
the wanton waste and ruin which the Spartans, in 3600, had 
committed on the walls, towers, and citadel. By these vari- 
ous movements and events Agesilaus is recalled to defend 
Sparta. After the victory of Conon, Athens gradually reco- 
vers splendour, power, and many of its rich provinces in 
Thrace and the ^gean Sea. 

3617 Antalcidas. The Spartans, finding it impossible to domineer 
over the states of Greece as far as they wished, made a mean 
peace with Persia, Antalcidas being the Spartan negociator. 
— This treaty required Thebes, Corinth, Argos, and even 
Athens, to abandon all their dependent cities. The Spartans 



INDEX. 9^1 

resolved, however, to retain all their rights and dependants, 
having meanly purchased the favour of that king of Persia 
whose dominions they had lately invaded. 

3623 Thebes perfidiously taken by a Spartan army, which en- 
tered the city under the guise of friendship. The same cru- 
elties acted as at Athens. 

3637 Thebes delivered by Pelopidas and Epaminondas, The 

former returned in disguise from Athens as Thrasybulus did 
from Thebes. From this time there is one continued strug- 
gle between Thebes and Sparta, until 3641, when Thebes 
was triumphant, and Sparta humbled at Mantinea. 

3633 Battle of Leuctra in Boeotia — Pelopidas and Epaminondas 
gloriously triumph. 

'3634 Philip of Macedon carried a hostage to Thebes ten years 
before he was made king. 

3641 Battle of Mantinea in Arcadia. Epaminondas again hum- 
bles Sparta, but dies full of glory. Thebes and Athens are 
now the predominant powers, until Philip appears. 

3644 Philip, the youngest of several brothers, had been carried as 
a hostage to Thebes by Ptlopidas, who arbitrated a dispute 
between the brothers. Philip, on hearing of the death of his 
last brother, privately escaped from Thebes, and ascended a 
throne beset by competitors, to rule a small, inland, distress- 
ed and ravaged country. He was instructed by the best mas- 
ters of the wisest age of Greece; cool, politic, shrewd, wily, 
ambitious and enterprizing ; a profound politician, accom- 
plished scholar, and consummate dissembler; companiona- 
ble, affable, facetious. What was wanting was an honest 
heart. 

3646 War of Athens with its allies. 

3650 Sacred war. 

3651 Philip takes Methone. 

3652 

Demosttienea Philip prevented from taking Thermopylae. 

3656 Philip takes Olynthus. 

3657 Philip seizes Thermopylae, punishes the Phocians, and be- 
comes in place of them a member of the Amphyctionic 
Council. 

3665 The Athenian Phocion compels Philip to raise the siege of 
Byzantium and Perinthus. 

3666 Baffle of Chcsronea. Philip, having finished another sa- 
cred war, had alarmed and united Thebes and Athens by 
taking Elatea, but defeated both at Chceronea. 



92 INDEX. 

3667 Philip declared at Corinth generalissimo of all Greece against 
Persia. 

3668 Philip assassinated — Alexander succeeds, 

3670 Alexander with 30,000 Greeks invades the Persian empire, 
defeats Darius at the river Grancius, reduces the cities that 
resist him, and subjects Asia Minor. 

3671 Alexander gains the battle and the pass of Issus, and enters 
Syria ; besieges Tyre seven months and takes it; Jerusalem 
is delivered to him by Jaddus the high priest. 

3672 Gaza surrenders after a siege of three months, and Egypt, 
so long disaffected to the Persians, submits without resis- 
tance. Alexandria founded. 

3673 Battle of Arbela. Darius defeated the third time. Mace- 
donian empire succeeds the Persian. Alexander takes Ba- 
bylon, Susa, Persepolis, marches into India, and conquers as 
far as his troops will follow. 

3681 Alexander dies, aged 33, at Babylon, while he is endeavour- 
ing to reinstate that city in its splendour and make it his 
capital. Philip Aridaeus and Alexander JEgus sham kings. 
Empire divided. 

3682 Lamian war— so called because the revolted Athenians at- 
tacked Antipater at Lamia. Antipater prevailed and took 
Athens. Death of Demosthenes. 

3683 Body of Alexander carried to Egypt. Antigonus and Anti- 
pater league against Eumenes and the regent Perdiccaa. 
Perdjccas killed — Antipater regent in his stead. 

3685 Antipater dies. Polysphercon is regent in his stead, and is 
opposed by Lysander. son of Antipater. Phocion condemn- 
ed. Cassander seizes Athens, and makes Demetrius Phale- 
reus governor. 

3687 Olympia puts to death Aridaeus and his wife Euridice, and 
is herself soon after killed by Cassander. 

3689 Eumenes, governor of Cappadocia, after being pursued from 
Cappadocia to Syria, and from thence to the Euphrates, long 
supporting the character of a great general, is at last basely 
murdered by his troops. From this time Antigonus is con- 
stantly encroaching on the rights and territories of the other 
generals, and provokes them to that final conflict that ended 
at Jpsus in his defeat and death. 

3691 Antigonus and his strange son Poliorcetes take Tyre after 
a seige of fifteen months. 

3692 Zeno founds the sect of the Stoics at Athens* 



INDEX. ^3 

3693 Seleucus takes Babylon and the neighbouring provinces. 
Ptolemy takes a great number of Jews to Alexandria. Cas- 
sander kills Roxanna and her infant son. 

3695 Polysphercon, after attempting to make use of young Her- 
cule"s against Cassander, basely murdered him to gain Cas- 
sander to his interest. 

3696 Ophelias, governor of Lybia, revolts against Ptolemy of 
Egypt. 

3693 Demetrius Poliorcetes takes Athens, Cyprus, and Salamis. 
The governors assume the title of kings. 

3700 Celebrated seige of Rhodes by Demetrius, which fails. 

3702 Antigonus and Demetrius now lords of Asia by rapine and 
cruelty, and by threatening the other princes. Cassander, 
Lysiraachus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus league against them. 

3703 Battle of Ipsus. Antigonus killed and his strange son De- 
metrius Poliorcetes flies with a small army to be the sport 
of fortune a little longer. 

3704 Seleucus builds Antioch in Syria. The Athenians reject the 
fugitive Demetrius Poliorcetes, who still however possesses 
Cyprus, Tyre, Sidon, some towns in the Peloponessus and 
elsewhere. 

3707 Cassander dies. The famous Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who 
had been driven out of his kingdom, this year marries Anti- 
gona, step-daughter of Ptolemy, who gives him a fleet, with 
which he returns to Epirus and regains his kingdom. 

3709 Demetrius, after wandering about, plundering, &c., for seve- 
ral years, returns to Athens, which he retakes, but soon after 
hears that Ptolemy had taken Cyprus. 

3710 Demetrius, soon after hearing of the loss of Cyprus, is invited 
to Macedon by Alexander, sen of Cassander, whom he kills 
and succeeds. 

3711 Seleucus founds Seleucia near Babylon, which causes the 
rapid decay of Babylon. 

3715 Death of the atrocious Agathocles, tyrant of Syracuse, after a 
bloody reign of twenty-eight years. 

3717 Pyrrhus on one side, and Lysimachus on the other, invade 
Macedon, and drive out Demetrius, who was preparing to 
invade them. Demetrius wanders into Asia, falls into the 
hands of Seleucus, who confines him on an island till he dies. 
Lysimachus unites Macedon and Thrace. 

3718 Lysimachus, after driving out his friend Pyrrhus, rules in 
Macedon and Thrace, after which there is no distinct king- 
dom of Thrace. 



94 INDEX. 

3719 Pergamus becomes a kingdom under Philetaerus, who held 
the city and hirge treasures for Lj'simachus, which Phile- 
taerus now appropriates to himself. 

3732 Lysimachus and his son Agathocles marry Arsinoe and 
Lysandra, daughters of Ptolemy. Their brother, Ptolemy 
Ceraunus, fled from his brother Philadelphus, but found a 
poor refuge with his sisters, who were quarrelling. 

3723 Ptolemy Ceraunus flies from the bloody court of Lysima- 
chus, and persuades Seleucus to make Avar upon him. Ly- 
simachus was killed, and Thrace and Macedon fell to Seleu- 
cus, who was killed by Ceraunus after entering Macedon. 

3724 Ceraunus, after the atrocious murder of his benefactor Seleu- 
cus, kills his sister's children by Lysimachus. Pyrrhus, 
invited by the Greeks of Tarentum, enters Italy and gains 
several victories over the Romans. 

3725 Pyrrhus in Italy. A swarm of Gauls break into Macedon 
and kill Ceraunus, who is succeeded by Meleager. 

3726 Pyrrhus abandons his fortune in Italy, and seeks new hon» 
ours in Sicily. 

3727 Ptolemy Philadelphus is said to have carried seventy Jews 
to Egypt to make the Septuagint version of the Old Testa- 
ment : this is not the received opinion. 

3728 Antigonus Gonatus, who had succeeded his father in the 
cities of Greece, this year came to fill the vacant throne, 
from which his father had been driven ten years before. 

3729 Antigonus and Antiochus quarrel about Macedon ; the dis- 
pute is settled by a marriage ; and the posterity of old Anti- 
gonus, and his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, fill the throne un- 
til 3836. Antiochus i*eceives the name of Soter for defeating 
the Gauls who invaded Macedon. They settle in Thrace, 

3730 Pyrrhus flies back to Italy and is defeated by the Romans, 
then flies to Macedon, and drives out Antigonus till '33. 

3732 Pyrrhus tries in vain to conquer Sparta. 

3733 Pyrrhus killed at the siege of Argos by a tile thrown by a 
mother who saw his sword raised to kill her son. After 
this the race of Antigonus and Demetrius reign uninterrupt- 
ed in Macedon, till 3836. 

3736 Antigonus Gonatus returns to Macedon (33) after the death 
of Pyrrhus. From this time there is one continued struggle 
between his descendants on one side, and the states of Greece 
on the other. 



INDEX. 



95 



3739 Abautidas kills Clinias the governor, and masters Sycion. 
Magus, governor of Lybia, revolts against Ptolemy. 

3740 Punic war (actual year) — the first war the Romans carried 
out of Italy, having been employed 500 years in conquering 
the different Italian states. 

3741 Eumenes in Pergamus. 

3743 Berosus of Babylon, the historian. 
3746 Magus and Ptolemy reconciled. 

3749 A war between Antiochus of Syria and Ptolemy. 

3750 Punic war, (tenth year.) Achaean league : — aleague of twelve 
cities which had existed for some time, but now for the first 
time becomes important. Parthia, revolting from Antiochus 
Theos, separated from Syria — afterwards an empire. These 
wars and the Achaean league began about the same time, 
and ended the same year, 3858. 

3752 Aratus, son of Clinias, delivers Sicyon from tyranny, and 
unites it to the Achaean league. 

3755 Antiochus and Ptolemy make peace on condition that Anti- 
ochus divorce his wife Laodice, and marry Berenice, daugh- 
ter of Ptolemy. 

3756 Agis 4th of Sparta, endeavours to restore the severe laws of 
Lycurgus. 

3757 Ptolemy Evergetes reigns. 

3758 The divorced Laodice poisons her husband after he had re^* 
ceived her again, and proclaims Callinicus her son. Bere- 
nice and her son were assassinated Ptolemy Evergetes 
enters Syria, lays it waste, and takes ample revenge. 

3760 Aratus takes Corinth by a daring enterprise from the king 
of Macedon, and unites it to the Achaean league, as he had 
done his native city Sicyon. King Agis fails in his attempts 
to restore the laws of Lycurgus, and is put to death. 

3762 Antigonus Gonatus dies. Seleucus Callinicus has a fearful 
war with his brother Hierax. 

3764 End of the first Punic war, after continuing twenty-four 
years. The Romans gained Sicily and the dominion of the 
sea, which Carthage had long possessed. 

3772 Antigonus Doson reigns in Macedon as guardian to his cou- 
sin Philip, afterwards king. 

3774 Seleucus Callinicus taken prisoner in Parthia which he is 
attempting to recover. 



96 



INDEX. 



3776 Cleomenes, king of Sparta, gains a great victory over AratuS 
and the Achaeans. 

3777 Seleucus dies in Parthia. Ceraunus succeeds. Aratus de- 
feats Aristippus of Argos, and gains Megalopolis to the 
Achaean league. 

3779 The Romans humble Teuta, queen of the piratical Illyrians. 
They send a famous embassy to notify the Grecians of their 
treaty. The embassy treated with extraordinary marks of 
honour. Aratus calls Antigonus Doson king of Macedon to 
aid him against Sparta. This was contemptible policy, since 
it was the aim of the Achaean league to repel the kings of 
Macedon. 

3781 Aratus and Antigonus combined defeat Cleomenes king of 
Sparta, at Sellasia. Sparta is taken. Cleomenes has to flee 
to Egypt. Antiochus the Great reigns. His great cotempo- 
raries were Philip, Hannibal, Fabius, Marcellus, and the 
Scipios ; on these depended the destinies of Greece, Rome, 
and Carthage. 

3782 The Colossus of Rhodes throvsrn down by an earthquake. 

3783 Ptolemy Philopater. The vEtolians figure in Greece, and 
gain a great victory over the the Achaeans. Philip of Ma- 
cedon. 

3784 Antiochus the Great resolves to recover Parthia. He actu- 
ally recovers Media and Persia which had lately revolted. 
Cleomenes dies in Egypt basely treated. 

3787 Battle of Kapha. 

3788 Second Punic war. Hannibal, Carthaginian general of 
Spain, crosses the Pyrrhenean mountains into Gaul, and the 
Alps into Italy, and gains several victories. 

3790 Philip of Macedon being leagued with Hannibal, the Ro- 
mans send sufficient forces and money to employ him while 
Hannibal is at their gates. 

3792 Syracuse taken by Marcellus the Roman general, after a 
siege of three years. The Romans were nearly baffled by 
the machines of Archimedes. 

3800 Antiochus the Great defeats the Egyptians and takes the 
Holy Land. Scipio conquers Spain. The Egyptians cravethe 
protection of the Romans against Antiochus the Great and 
Philip of Macedon. From this the Romans make rapid ad- 
vances by the power of their arms, and the terror of their 
name, and by the array of petty states against larger ones. 

3801 A league between Philip and Antiochus the Great against 
Egypt, obliges the young king Ptolemy to put himself under' 



INDEX. 97 

to put himself under the protection of the Romans, who from 
that time become arbiters in the affairs of Egypt. 

3803 Scipio having boldly landed in Africa, Hannibal is recalled 
and defeated by Scipio at Zama. Carthage city stands, the 
empire destroyed, despoiled, and not permitted to repel the 
attacks of its neighbours. 

3804 Romans make war on Philip 2d of Macedon (for four 
years.) 

3808 Some say that this is the year that Antiochus the Great took 
Palestine. It seems, however, that it was five or six years 
earlier. The Achaeans and iEtolians join the Romans 
. against Philip. 

3807 Nabis, tyrant of Sparta, joins the Romans against Philip. 

3808 Battle of Cenocephale. Philip humbled, and both Macedon 
and Greece are subjected to Roman dictation. The smaller 
states of Greece and Asia seem to court the Roman yoke. 

3813 Battle of Magnesia. Antiochus the Great, after traversing 
Asia into India, with a triumphant march, taking Palestine 
from Ptolemy, exercising great power in Asia Minor and 
Greece, is humbled at Magnesia in Asia Minor by Scipio 
Asiaticus, who pursued him out of Greece, and compelled 
him to plunder his people and pay tribute to the Romans, 
who become umpires of the East. 

3814 Philopoemen makes the Spartans join the Achaean league. 

3815 The JEtolians, who had joined the Romans against Philip, 
now assist Antiochus the Great against the Romans, and 
were this year humbled and severely chastised. 

3821 Philopoemen dies, often called the last of the Greeks. 

3830 Antiochus Epiphanes deposes Onias, a high priest of the 
Jews, and sells the office to Jason. 

3833 Antiochus Epiphanes makes war on Ptolemy Philopater, 
and the Romans on Perseus three years. 

3834 Antiochus Epiphanes makes himself master of all Egypt, 
takes the young king Ptolemy prisoner, and commits horrid 
cruelties at Jerusalem on his return. 

3836 Battle of Pydna. Macedon conquered. Perseus carried 
to Rome by Paulus ^milius. Pretended freedom, real tri- 
bute and slavery. Macedon not declared a Rom^n province 

, until 3856, twenty years after. 

3837 1000 principal men of the Achaeans, including the historian 
Polybius, summoned to Rome. Antiochus Epiphanes goes 

13 



98 INDEX. 

to Jerusalem to enforce his decree against religion. Death 
of Eleazer. Martyrdom of Maccabaeus. 

3838 Death of Matthias Maccabaeus. Judas succeeds him and 
triumphs. The Holy Land becomes independent of Syria. 

3843 Judas Maccabaeus dies after victories and prodigies of valour, 
and leaving his country in fact independent, although the 
struggle continues under his brothers. 

3S53 Andriscus, pretending to be the son of Perseus and king of 
Macedon, is subdued. The Romans refuse Carthage per- 
mission to defend itself against Massanissa. A cruel war 
ensues because it attempts to defend itself without permis- 
sion. 

3854 Third Punic tear. 

3858 The destruction of the city of Carthage by the younger Scipio 
Africanus finishes the Punic wars, after 118 years. The 
destruction of Corinth prostrates the Achaean league, 108 
years after Aratus had united Sycion to it. Spain, Greece, 
Macedon, and Africa belong to the Romans. The terror of 
their name is sufficient in Asia and Egypt, where princes 
are allowed to reign provided they do nothing to offend the 
Romans. Domestic convulsions suspend the career of con- 
quest until 3900, when Pompey conquers the East. 

3863 Numantia, a rebel city of Spain, resists Rome for a long* 
time. Demetrius Nicator taken prisoner in Parthia. 

3871 Tiberius Gracchus, a popular orator, proposes an Agrarian 
law, or the division of the lands of Pergamus, just bequeathed 
to Rome by the last king. Gracchus is killed. 

3883 Caius Gracchus imitates the popular nets of his brother, and 
like him is killed in a tumult. 

3890 Syria, already reduced to a small province by dismember- 
ment, is divided into two hostile kingdoms, Antioch and Da- 
mascus. 

3893 Numidia. Jugurtha, after supplanting his cousins, after de- 
fying the Romans and resisting their best generals for five 
years, is carried to Rome and starved to death in a prison. 

3894 Marius and Sylla supplant Metellus in the command against 
Jugurtha. 

3893 Teutones and Cimbri threaten for eight years to rush into 
the fair field and fine climate of Italy, and extinguish the 
Roman name. 

3903 Teutones and Cimbri defeated, 

3907 Ptolemy Apion bequeaths Cyrene to Rome. 



INDEX. 99 

3913 Social war, (three years,) called also the Marcian war. The 
Italian Socii or Allies, long since subdued, revolt against 
Rome, and demand the privilege of voting at Rome. A Ro- 
man civil war was between two Romans, or Roman armies. 
A social war was between the Italian Socii or Allies and 
Rome. 

3915 Mithridates causes 80,000 Romans to be massacred in Asia 
Minor. The consequence was the Mithridatic war. Mi- 
thridates makes himself master of Greece and Asia Minor. 
The Romans had to' finish the Marcian war by yielding their 
demands to some of the allies, and thus dividing the confede- 
racy. 

3916 Old Marius tries to supplant Sylla in the command against 
Mithridates. Sylla marches his army to Rome, drives Ma- 
rius out, who, after astonishing exploits and escapes, arrives 
at the ruins of Carthage. 

3917 Sylla meets Archelaus, son of Mithridates, in Greece, and 
Civil war. recovers Athens from him after a destructive siege. 

3618 Sylla gains the victories of Cheronaea and Orchomenos over 
Archelaus. Marius again in Rome, triumphant, sends Fim- 
bria and Flaccus to supplant Sylla, but Sylla prevails. 

3920 Fimbria's legions desert and join Sylla. Fimbria falls on 
his own sword. 

3921 The rivalship and commotions amongst the numerous and 
feeble SeleucidEe induced the Syrians to make Tigranes 
king of Armenia their king. He reigned fourteen years. 

3922 Sylla returns to Italy, and triumphs over the faction of Ma- 
rius. Young Pompey and Crassus appear on his side. 
Cato and Cicero begin their career. Julius Csesar being 
nephew to Marius has to fly. 

3923 Si/Ua Dictator, after defeating Marius in two civil wars, 
and triumphing over Mithridates in the interval. 

3935 Sylla abdicates and dies two years after. 

3928 Bithynia and Cyrene bequeathed to Rome, take the condi- 
tion of Roman provinces. 

3929 Second and third Mithridatic wars. Lucullus and Cotta Ro- 
man commanders. 

3931 Servile war, or insurrection of slaves and gladiators under 
Spartacus. Sertorius subdued by Pompey and Metellus. 
Sertorius was assassinated by his companion Perpenna. 

3933 Mithridates and Spartacus. The former, defeated by Lucul- 
lus, flies to his son-in-law Tigranes, king of Armenia. Spar- 
tacus destroyed, and the servile war finished by Crassus and 
Pompey. 



100 INDEX. 

3937 Mutiny of the soldiers of Lucullus, through which Mithri- 
dates recovers his dominions. Foreign conquest resumed 
after a long interval of domestic convulsions, from the taking 
of Carthage and Corinth, 3858. 

3938 Pompey, after destroying the pirates who had infested the 
Mediterranean, is appointed to supersede Lucullus, whose 
army would not obey him. He makes Mithridates fly and 
Tigranes surrender. 

3939 Pompey subdues Syria, and substantially the Holy Land, by 
interfering between the contending Maccabee brothers. 

3941 Cataline's conspiracy defeated by Cicero. Ceesar pleads for 
a milder punishment for the conspirators : he wished to re- 
vive the faction of his uncle Marius. 

3944 First Triumvirate. Pompey has already won laurels over 
the whole empire. Ceesar goes to gather his in Gaul, which 
he conquers in ten years. Crassus chooses the East for its 
riches and splendour. 

3946 Cicero banished (recalled next year) by the arts and jealous- 
ies of the triumvirs. Cato takes Cyprus from Ptolemy. 
Berenice usurps the throne of her father Ptolemy Auletes. 

3949 Gabinius and Marc Antony restore Auletes to his throne, 
for which he is chiefly indebted to the influence of Pompey. 

3951 Crassus killed in Parthia, which he invaded, blinded by 
avarice and ambition. Misled by treacherous guides, he 
saw his son and friends miserably perish, and was perfidi- 
ously killed by Surena the Parthian general, at an interview 
craved by the latter. 

3953 Cassar, having finished the conquest of Gaul, was command- 
ed by the Roman senate, with Pompey at their head, to dis- 
band his armies : he refused, imless Pompey would also 
disband his in Spain and elsewhere, crossed the Rubicon, 
the sacred boundary between Gaul and Rome. Pompey 
and the senate fled into Greece. Italy, &c. submitted. 

3954 Civil war of Pompey and Julius Cassar. Italy submits to 
Csesar, who also conquered Spain, occupied by Pompey's 
troops. 

3956 Battle of Pharsalia. Csesar, with the forces of the West, 
conquers Pompey, who drew his forces from the East. Pom- 
pey's flight. Vale of Tempe. iEgean Sea. Egypt. Basely 
betrayed and assassinated. 

3957 Csesar takes Alexandria, after a perilous quarrel with Ptole- 
my Diogenes, brother of Cleopatra. He wastes much time 
in Egypt, while Cato holds out in Africa and young Pompey 
in Spain. 

3958 African war. Cato kills himself. Juba. 

3959 Battle of Munda in Spain. Csesar defeats Pompey's sons. 

3960 CaBsar murdered by Brutus and Cassius, republicans. 



INDEX. 101 

3961 Second Tiiumvirate. Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus 
united. After Octavius and Antony had quarrelled nearly 
a year, Octavius, aided by Cicero and the senate, gained 
the superiority in the battle of Mutina. These atrocious 
triumvirs abandon their best friends to satisfy their respective 
resentments. Octavius resigns his friend Cicero to the re- 
sentment of Antony, &c. 

3963 Battle of Pkilippi. Octavius and Antony defeat Brutus 
and Cassius, who destroy themselves. They divide the em- 
pire, Antony taking the East and Octavius the West. 

3964 Antony makes a disastrous expedition into Parthia — neglects 
his affairs for Cleopatra. 

3965 Ventidius defeats Pacorus the Parthian general, and retrieves 
the honour lost by Crassus and Marc Antony. 

3968 Young Pompey, who till this time retained considerable 
power, and eluded the triumvirs, is this year defeated by Au- 
gustus in a sea fight. 

3973 Great preparations for war between Antony and Octavius. 
Antony had abandoned himself to pleasures and vanities, and 
neglected his affairs for Cleopatra. 

3973 Civil war. Battle of Actium. Octavius Caesar defeats An- 
tony and Cleopatra ; and now the Roman world, which had 
been so long convulsed, and for the last ten 'years divided, 
falls to Octavius. 

3974 After Antony and Cleopatra had returned to Egypt and mi- 
serably perished by suicide, Octavius took Alexandria, and 
made Egypt a Roman province, after it had been under Ro- 
man guardianship 173 years, from 3800. 

3977 The adulation of the Roman senate confers the title of Au- 
gustus on Octavius. 

3983 The conspiracy of Mursena against Augustus. 

3983 Augustus visits Greece and Asia. 

3984 The Roman ensign recovered from the Parthians by Tibe- 
rius, afterwards emperor. 

3987 Secular games celebrated, 

3988 LoUius defeated by the Germans. 

3989 The Raeti and Vindelici defeated by Drusus, 
3993 The Pannonians conquered by Tiberius. 
3993 Several German nations conquered by Drusus. 
3998 Tiberius retires to Rhodes for seven years. 
4000 Birth of Christ, actual year. 

4004 or 1 According to the vulgar era. 



Outline of History, from Augustus to Charlemagne, 
AD. 800. 



Historical Sketches of the Roman Emperors, from Augustus to the 
extinction of the Western Empire. A.D. 476. 

Augustus. View him, at the death of his uncle Julius, returning 
Died A.D. 14. from school, aged 19, blending, even then, with the 
most uncommon coolness, resolution, and sagacity, all the address and 
dexterity of mature experience. In art and dissimulation consum- 
mate and profound ; disguising his thirst of glory under the specious 
pretext of pursuing public justice, and vengeance for his murdered 
uncle; cloaking his lust of power under professions of republican ar- 
dour and devotion ; blinding the aged vision of Cicero to win the senate 
against Antony, taking into his bosom his half subdued enemy, after 
duly searching his person for concealed daggers ; and to this new friend 
sacrificing the former dupes of his duplicity, not sparing the silvery 
head of Cicero, to whose influence he owed his prosperity. View 
him tampering with the soldiers, and promising them the farms of in- 
nocent thousands, if they followed him to victory. Witness him joined 
Avith the profligate and unprincipled Antony, hunting the assassins of 
his uncle, after he had promised them peace and indemnity, to gain 
their acquiescence in his measures against the same Antony. Observe 
his politic forbearance towards the same Antony for ten years, Avhile 
he ruled the West and Antony the East, till he finds his strength ade- 
quate to the defeat and overthrow of his rival. After all his triumphs, 
when every arm was paralyzed but his own, when all resistance was 
confounded, all authority centred in him alone, as the source and foun- 
tain of law and command, his habitual duplicity flowed on, as if it was 
the element in which he lived, and as inseparable from his existence 
as the air. In the exercise of boundless prerogative and power |he 
preserved, with the most scrupulous care, the ancient forms of adminis- 
tration. The powers of consul, tribune, censor, and pontiflj were all 
lavished on him for life; while his colleagues were, in form, chosen 
by the senate and people. His government was an absolute monarchy, 
disguised by the forms of a commonwealth. He was the humble min- 
ister of the senate, and obeyed their edicts, because he dictated them. 

Tiberius. As a prince and public man, his talents and acquire- 
A.D. 14. nients were highly respectable ; his mind was richly 
cultivated, his ideas and words flowed with enviable ease and readi- 
ness ; he was acquainted with public life; an able and expert magis- 
trate, and a respectable general. His virtues, however, were not fixed, 
his principles were loose, he was easily seduced by bad example or 
precept, and wanted the restraint of a virtuous community to fix his 
good and check his bad propensities. Naturally dark and dissembling, 



ROMAN EMPERORS. 103 

by the precepts and example of Augustus, he became, on the throne, 
chiefly conspicuous for those qualities, which, under different circum- 
stances, might have been concealed, or discoverable only in a common 
and moderate degree. If he was naturally distrustful, his fortune and 
experience, as well as the obvious corruption and prevailing hypocrisy 
of his age, were calculated to multiply and confirm his worst suspi- 
cions. If he proved cruel at last, it was more from the disgust, con- 
tempt, and fear that the heartless adoration of some men, and the dark 
machinations of others engendered, than from any innate desire to 
cause or witness human suffering. Thus far and no farther truth and 
candour can go in extenuating the atrocious reign of this emperor. 

In imitation of his artful master, he pretended to decline the weight 
of imperial authority, to court only repose, to distrust his adequacy, 
and to restore to the senate its ancient privileges. Though every mem- 
ber of that body perfectly understood the insincerity of these profes- 
sions, they were obliged to dissemble their knowledge, and with the 
most degrading importunity implore their master to seize that which 
he already held fast, and to hold fast that which he had no inclination 
to resign. 

His stern justice was often provoked by the open insolence and se- 
cret practices of his enemies. The adulation of many, the blind trea- 
son of some, at once made him despise and hate mankind. The farther 
he was provoked to oppression or anger, the more dangerous it seemed 
to resign his authority. A want of sincerity and fixed principle, the 
force of precept and example, of fortune and accident, and the well- 
merited contempt of mankind, drove him to the commission of those 
acts that have the character of deep crime and enormity. 

Caligula. Caligula, or Caius, the unworthy son of the noble Ger- 
A.D. 37. manicus and the elder Agrippina, a profligate, aban- 
doned youth, was chosen, chiefly for his congenial views, by Tibe- 
rius, for his successor. The commencement of his reign was distin- 
guished by acts of the tenderest regard to his people, whose lives, 
liberty, and prosperity were respected as sacred. The Roman world 
enjoyed this delicious repose for eight months; when all the horrors 
of the preceding reign were renewed, and a career of wanton cruelty, 
crime, folly, and indecency commenced. Not satisfied with sporting 
with the living, he assailed the statues and memory of the dead, and 
replaced the heads of the gods with his own. His profane mockery 
erected temples and ordered priests to himself, human victims were 
devoured by wild beasts in his palace; incest and lewdness, theft and 
murder, received his special patronage and countenance. To his horse 
Incitatus a palace was erected and domestics assigned ; a marble stable 
and ivory rack, gilt barley, and wine from a golden cup. He fell, at 
last, by the hand of an assassin. 

Claudius. Claudius succeeded his nephew, Caligula, by appoint- 

A.D.41. ment of the pretorians, and pursued a mild and popular 

course, till, through the influence of his wanton and profligate relative 

Messalina, whom he had married, he became like his predecessors, an 

inhuman and bloody tyrant. Being of a feeble and stupid mind, he 



104 OUTLINE OF HISTORYc 

abandoned the government to vile and flagitious favourites ; whostJ 
licentiousness and rapacity plundered the state, and set the nation in 
commotion. His four wives disgraced the imperial name ; the noto- 
rious Messalina had converted the palace, and even the city, into an 
imperial brothel : and when he had reluctantly punished her as her 
lust and debaucheiy deserved, he espoused his celebrated niece, Agrip- 
pina, widow of Domitius, and by him mother of Nero. Her criminal 
ambition, not satisfied with controlling the administration of her impe- 
rial consort; caused him to be poisoned, that her son Nero might sup- 
plant Britannicus, son of Claudius, and lawful heir to the throne. The 
reign of Claudius was signalized by the conquest of Britain ; which 
was achieved entirely by his generals, and was not completed and con- 
firmed till the time of Domitian. 

Nero. Nero, son of Domitius and the younger Agrippina, the 
A.D. 54. descendant of Antony and Octavia. He was the last of the 
real Caesars ; a vile profligate, a flagrant criminal, an avowed parri- 
cide, a monster, blending the extremes of atrocity with the utmost ex- 
cesses of the trifling and the ridiculous. The example of four preced- 
ing reigns taught or suggested the dissembling virtues with which he 
began his. But the age must have been blind or stupified, if the son 
of Domitius or Agrippina, educated in the maxims of imperial depra- 
vity, and under the pupilage of his flagitious mother, could impose 
upon them by the constrained and artificial virtues of an opening ad- 
ministration. Not indignant virtue, nor even impatient censure, could 
deny this paragon of crime and folly the merit of considerable talent 
and taste. That he was the author of the conflagration of Rome is a 
clumsy and palpable calumny ; and it is highly probable that his real 
outrages have suggested and given currency to many that are fictitious. 
A lover of truth will reject a fiction, even when it favours his pre- 
judices. Nero ordered his mother to be drowned, on a pretended ex- 
cursion of pleasure ; and when accident defeated his intentions, he 
boldly despatched the assassins to her palace ; and without discovering 
the bloody deed, he sent a letter to the senate, justifying the murder to 
that body and to the world. 

A prostrate king of Armenia might see the lordly potentate, who 
raised him from the dust, seeking immortal glory in the circus, amphi- 
theatre, or orchestra, contending for the prize in the chariot race or 
hunt ; or distorting his imperial visage, or straining his imperial throat, 
or trying his imperial lungs, to win the prize, In nocturnal riots, in 
buffoonery, revelling, and carnivals, his superior was unknown; and 
though many could excel him in wrestling and music, there was no 
man audacious enough to claim or award the prize of victory against 
him. 

Galea.. This emperor had risen through every grade of inferior 
A.D. 68. office by his great merit; and after enjoying the smiles of 
several emperors, he was high in command under Nero, when the 
enormities of that emperor shocked all mankind, drove Vindex into 
rebellion in Gaul, (afterwards conquered by Virginius,) and Gal- 
lia himself, in Spain. When the Roman senate heard of these 



ROMAN EMPERORS, 105 

events thej' took courage, condemned Nero, and acknowledged Galba, 
whose army had already proclaimed their aged general. Rome and 
the world submitted to Galba, and the flying Nero was pursued, over- 
taken, and despatched. 

The virtues of Galba did not qualify him for his imperial elevation ; 
his conduct was feeble, and fluctuated between opposite extremes of 
parsimony and prodigality, of levity and cruelty. His bounty to the 
soldiers fell far short of their expectations. Otho, once his advocate, 
but now recently disappointed in not being adopted for his successor, 
soon seduced the allegiance of the guards, who being instigated by him, 
rushed upon their defenceless emperor, and despatched him, after a 
reign of eight months. 

Otho. Fraud and murder brought this emperor to the throne. 

A.D. 69. jjig former days, under Nero, were marked by dissipation 
and debauchery, and criminal participation in the course of that em- 
peror. His elevation only served to exhibit more conspicuously the 
errors that stained his private character and attended him on the throne. 
His short career offered but few materials for history, unless we should 
detail his military operations, and three battles with his competitor 
Vitellius. He sunk under the superior fortune of his rival, and died 
the Roman death. His gaieties, gallantries, voluptuous life, and phi- 
losophic death, form his chief characteristics. 

Vitellius. He was a general in Germany, proclaimed by his own 
A.D. 70. troops before the news of Otho's elevation. The strug- 
gle was doubtful, and it was his fortune, not his superiority, that pre- 
vailed in the last battle, after several defeats. His criminal compli- 
ance with the odious vices of the emperors, and the grovelling and 
congenial propensities of his father and whole family, had secured to 
him the good graces of several emperors in succession. His gluttony, 
his unbounded extravagance, debauchery, and devotion to pleasure, 
might never have been celebrated in history, had he risen no higher 
than to the rank of general. His cruelties and extortion, after his ac- 
cession, provoked the horror and detestation of the world, and pro- 
moted the glory of the Flavian or Vespasian house, which is just 
rising like a star in the east, but which, under a Trajan or an Anto- 
nine, could never have risen much above the horizon. 

The contest between Vitellius and Vespasian has been admirably 
delineated by Tacitus. The blows and torture inflicted on the pros- 
trate Vitellius, by an infuriated populace, as much attest the savage 
manners of the age as the odious vices of the victim. 

Vespasian. The birth of Vespasian was mean : his grandfather 
A.D. 70. ^yag a. private soldier, and his father a petty officer of 
the revenue. His own merit raised him through every grade of mili- 
tary government, and placed him in a commanding and conspicuous 
attitude in the East, when the beastly Vitellius was glutting his enor- 
mous appetite and indulging his brutal passions at the expense of a 
plundered and oppressed people. The indignation of men against 
the imperial glutton had as much influence as the merit of Vespasian 

14 



106 OUTLINE OP HISTORY. 

in elevating the latter to the throne. The nomination of Vespasian 
proceeded from his own partial army, 'flushed with recent victory, in 
the full tide of glory, and panting for the ease and honours of the capi- 
tal. His success depended on the fate of his arms. His generals led 
the army to Rome, and overcame the forces of his rival ; whose ser- 
vants, generals, fleets, and armies betrayed him, and whose deformities 
of mind were enough to turn the universe against him. 

The success of Vespasian was not splendid, but his elevation was 
marked with dignity ; his military career had been highly reputable, 
and through life, by his personal behaviour in the East, he ably fulfilled 
the public expectations. The glories of his house were amply illus- 
trated by the imperial honour, the brilliant character, and achieve- 
ments of his son Titus. Though it has been remarked, that his merit 
was rather useful than shining, \'^et his wisdom and dignity, his scru- 
pulous and profound attention to the welfare of his people, the success 
of his administration, his embellishments and improvements of the 
capital and country, and his worthy son, impart a lustre to his name, 
in spite of the doubtful charge of "a strict and sordid economy" in his 
fiscal concerns. The example and magnanimity of the father reclaim- 
ed the profligate son from the excesses of indulgence and debauchery. 

Titus. The youth of Titus threatened a terrific reign; but there 
A.D.79. ^ag yet a redeeming principle; and when the indulgent 
but exemplary father reposed confidence it was not betrayed ; and the 
splendid and more amiable character of Titus, when associated with 
his father in power, served to turn the public attention from the ob* 
scure origin to the future glory of the Flavian family. 

Titus was adored by the Eastern legions, which, under his command, 
had just achieved the conquest of Judea. Though his virtues were 
clouded by the intemperance of youth, and his designs were suspected, 
yet, instead of listening to unworthy suspicions, the sagacious and 
anxious father associated his son in the full power of his imperial dig- 
nity; and the grateful son justified the confidence. Under the mild 
administration of Titus the world enjoyed a transient felicity ; and his 
beloved memory served to screen, above fifteen years, the hideous 
vices of his brother Domitian. 

DoMiTiAN. In the character of Domitian there is nothing equi- 
A.D. 81 vocal, nothing misunderstood. His passions were too 
predominant to be concealed by art. Selfish, impetuous, lustful, and 
impatient, it was dangerous to check or thwart his propensities. En- 
vious, jealous, timid, cowardly, the merit of his servants planted thorns 
in his breast. Implacable as impetuous, he often retired by himself 
to brood over bis causes of discontent ; and his solitude was a prelude 
to new atrocities. Prone, by nature, to sudden fits of rage, if at any 
time he had the patience or policy to disguise his anger, it was only 
smothered, to break out with fiercer rage. He felt the terror he in- 
spired, and his jealous fears often urged him on in his tragic career. 
His face and eyes flamed with anger and rage. Authors represent 
him by the figure of a raging tempest, sweeping the country with de- 
solation. Not content, like his tyrannical predecessors, with a single 



ROMAN EMPERORS. 107 

victim at a time, he sent crowds at once to the slaughter. He would 
often mock the people, and even senators, with threats, and then dis- 
miss them for his amusement. 

Pliny has given a striking picture of Domitian in his solitary re- 
treats. That savage beast shut himself up, as it were, in a den, where 
he quaffed the blood of his relations ; and when he came forth, it was 
to riot in the destruction of the best and most illustrious citizens. Dis- 
may and terror obstructed his door, and they who were excluded were 
as much in danger as those who had gained admittance. 

The tyrant was horrible to the sight : pride in his aspect, anger in 
his eye, a feminine whiteness over his whole body; in his countenance 
an air of vengeance. No man dared approach him, none could speak 
to him — he remained in darkness, brooding mischief, and never came 
forth from his solitude, but to make worse solitude, by the destruction 
of eminent men. 

Neeva. Nerva, the first of the five good emperors, ascended the 
A.D. 96. throne. He was old and infirm, and associated with him 
Trajan, who, like his predecessor, was a virtuous prince. Adrian 
was next adopted. He visited the different parts of the empire, reform- 
ed abuses, and made many improvements. He was succeeded hy Anto- 
ninus Pius, and he by Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, who was the most 
perfect model of Pagan virtue, 

CoMMODUS. Commodus^ his horrid son, succeeded. He renewed 
A.D. 180. q\\ {{jg cruelties and massacres of the reign of Domitian. 

Pertinax. Pertinax was chosen by the Pretorian guards : and 
A.D. 192. after reigning eighty-seven days, was put to death by 
the same hands that placed him on the throne. The empire was then 
put up at auction, and sold to Julius Didius, the highest bidder. 

211. Severus was then chosen by his army on the Danube, Niger 
in Syria, and Alhinus in Britain. After the death of Severus his two 
sons, Caracalla and Geta, came to Rome and succeeded their father; 
but it was with such feelings of enmity, that they never spoke during 
the voyage : and after their arrival, the imperial palace was divided 
between them, and its passages of entrance strictly guarded. 

218. Macrinus was an African by birth, and the astrologers had 
foretold his future greatness. Word was sent to Caracalla that he was 
in danger from Macrinus ; but Macrinus being prime minister, first 
read the letters, kept them, pnt his master to death, and then fulfilled 
the prophecy. He reigned but a short time, and was succeeded by 

Heliogabalus, a boy of but fourteen. At this early age he showed 
himself a monster of profligacy and cruelty; and though he reigned, 
but four years, yet, in this short time, he exhausted all his resources. 
He married and divorced six wives. 

222. Alexander Severus was a mild and amiable prince. Young as 
he was, he undertook, and rendered successful, an expedition against 
Parthia, A mutiny was raised by Maximus, who asserted that the 
emperor was a feeble and unambitious prince, unfit to govern a great 
empire ; so he was put to death in his camp, and Maximus, who was 
descended from some straggling Goths, succeeded. This caused mu- 



108 OUTLINE OP HISTORY. 

tiny and rebellion in many parts of the empire. The two Gordians 
were appointed, but in sixty days they were both dead. The youngest 
was killed in attempting to defend himself against one of Maximus' 
creatures at Carthage, and the other killed himself in despair. 

Maximus and Balbinus were next appointed ; and on reaching Rome 
the senate wished to unite Gordian 3rd, a boy of twelve years of age, 
as their colleague. Maximus and Balbinus were assassinated, and 
the dominion left to Gordian, who proved a good and worthy prince. 

Philip, an Arabian by birth, put Gordian to death, and succeeded. 
During his reign the Goths invaded Asia Minor, and, entering Greece, 
desolated and laid waste the country. Philip nominated Decius to go 
against the Goths, and sent him to Moesia and Thrace. After two 
years successful movement against them, he was unfortunately killed, 
in the confusion of battle, in a morass. 

Gallus, instead of pursuing, against the Goths, the course marked 
out by Decius, hired them to leave the empire. This put him out of 
favour; and Velerian, after defeating him in battle, was appointed his 
successor. He made an unsuccessful expedition against the Parthians. 
The Goths, enabled by the money paid them, again renewed their at- 
tacks, defeated the Romans, and took their emperor prisoner. 

Gallienus, his son and successor, was a man of talents, but he did 
nothing towards suppressing the Goths. He associated with him 
Odenatus, who was styled colleague of Gallienus and emperor of the 
East. He was assassinated, and Zenobia, his queen, succeeded him. 

Zenobia resisted Gallienus and Claudius his successor, who might 
have subdued her had he reigned longer. He reigned but two years, 
and was succeeded by Aurelian; who attacked her in Palmyra, her 
capital, and obliged her to surrender it. He left her mistress of the 
city, but limited her authority to that and returned home. On arriv- 
ing at the Bosphorus he heard that Zenobia was queen of the East, 
with Palmyra for her capital, and Egypt and Syria as part of her do- - 
minions. With great indignation he returned, again besieged Palmy- 
ra, took it, and carried the queen to grace his triumph at Rome. After 
this he dismissed her honourably, with palaces and villas for her ha- 
bitation, and her children were among the first nobility in Italj'-. 

275. Aurelian was killed, and the government was, for eight months, 
under ministers, until Tacitus was elected. He reigned but eight 
months, and was succeeded by his brother Florian, and he by Prohus, 
a great emperor, and a favourite with the senate. 

Cams, a rustic, marched against the Parthians and was killed by 
lightning in his own camp, and Numerian and Carinus succeeded. 

Numerian was poisoned and Carinus made peace with the Parthi- 
ans. He was a mere buffoon ; prided himself more on his knowledge 
of cookery than his sagacity in political affairs. 

284. Diocletian introduces a new system, that of imperial colleagues, 
designed to repel the barbarians and recover the provinces that had 
been wrested from the empire. Diocletian and Maximian were styled 
Augustus, and each had an assistant of equal power, but with the infe- 
rior title of Csesar. Diocletian resided at Nicomedia, Maximian at 
Milan, Galerius on the banks of the Danube, and Constantius Chlorus 
in such parts of Gaul or Britain as required his presence. Diocletian 



ROMAN EMPERORS. 109 

was the only great man among them ; Constantius Chlorus was a good 
man, but Maximian and Galeriuswere both unprincipled and savage. 
As long as Diocletian reigned he kept the empire in perfect order, 
and displayed talents in every department of government, in his ascen- 
dancy over the minds of men, and in his selection of officers, which 
have caused him to be not inaptly compared to Augustus. 

304 After a joint reign of twenty years, he and Maximian re- 

Abdication. signed. Galerius took the title of Augustus, and chose two 
Caesars in the East, viz. Maximinus and Licinius ; and obliged Con- 
stantius, the other Augustus, to accept Severus as his Caesar. 

In less than a year after the abdication Maximian reappeared, with 
his son Maxentius, overcame Severus, and took his place. Constan- 
tine succeeded his father Constantius ; and Galerius dying soon after, 
he was left to sweep from the stage Maximian, Maxentius, Maximin, 
and Licinius. Maximian fled from his own son to Constantino, who 
had married his daughter ; but afterwards endeavoured to supplant 
him, and was murdered in consequence. 

In 312 Constantino invaded Italy, and 'gained three great battles 
over Maxentius, who, after suifering a complete route in the last, was 
drowned in crossing the Tiber. On the destruction of Maxentius, 
Constantine united with Licinius, and left him to destroy Maximin 
whilst he opposed the Franks. A quarrel ensued between the two 
victors, in which Licinius was worsted, though he still reigned eight 

Erapireunitedy^'^y^.^'^ ?^^^^^^' ^^^^' ^^^ ^gypt. In another civil war 
under Con- Licinius is removed from the scene, and Constantine stands 
stantine. before US the sole monarch of a united empire. 
The life of Constantine may be divided thus: — 1st. His civil wars- 
2d, The building of New Rome, or Constantinople, which occupied 
nearly all the rest of his reign ; 3d, The legal adoption of Christianity, 
■which ended persecution by the heathen ; but led to persecution of 
them, and to persecutions among the Christians themselves. Constan- 
tinople became the residence of the Eastern emperors for eleven hun- 
dred years. 

Constantine. Constantino, at his death, divided the empire between his 
Death of three sons ; Constantius in the East, Constans in the Middle, 
and Constantine in the West. Constans soon met and defeated Con- 
stantine in battle, thus adding the West to his portion. He was dis- 
„_Q placed in 350 by Magnentius, a usurper ; whom Constantius 
Constantius ^"^'^^'^^^^^ly P^^rsued and slew, and thus became sole empe- 
I Augustus, ror. It had been the policy of these brothers to rid them- 
selves of all their relations ; two only had been spared, their 
Julian Cffisar. cousins, Julian and Gallus; and Constantius now feeling the 
Avant of a colleague, raised Julian to the rank of Ca3sar, and gave him 
command of the armies in Gaul. The new Cassar remained faithful 
until he had settled the Gallic frontier ; but when Constantius then 
demanded his troops for the Persian service, they mutinied, and gave 
Julian the choice of "the purple or death." Deciding upon the former, 
he immediately pursued his cousin, wishing to meet him at Constanti- 
constantius ^^P^^ 3 ^^^ ^^^ death of Constantius at this time gave him 
dies. peaceable possession of the throne. 



110 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 

361 Julian's first act was to decree the restoration of the Pagan 

''"''^'^^J'^e"Mvorship ; he, however, professed entire toleration. After a 
short reign, in which he proved himself a wise and very ac- 
tive prince, he was killed in an expedition against the Persians. 
Jovian Jovian then filled the throne for a few months. Christi- 

anity was restored, and Paganism sunk for ever. 
363 The voice of the nation next named Valentinian their ru- 

Vaiontinian jgr. He bestowed the East, with the title of Augustus, upon 

and Valens. , . , , t^. , e ' r 

his brother Valens. 
The empire of the West, at this time, was subject to constant incur- 
sions from the barbarians, whom Valentinian successfully opposed in 
many battles. He died in an expedition against the Quadi, 375. Wars 
with Persia, Britain, and Africa also distracted the empire. Gratian 
Theodosius ^""^ Valentinian 2d succeeded in the West ; and the death 
the Great, of the inefficient Valens soon left the East in the hands of The- 
odosius, surnamed the Great. 
Revolt in Maximus revolted in Britain, invaded Gaul, caused Gra- 
Britain. ^[^^ ^q j^g slain, and compelled Theodosius to accept him for 
a colleague. But, not contented with his good fortune, this usurper 
soon after attacked Valentinian 2d in Italy, and drove him from his 
dominions. This latter sought the protection of Theodosius, who de- 
feated Maximus, put him to death, and restored the throne to his col- 
league Valentinian, its rightful owner. By the death of Valentinian, 
Theodosius was, soon after, left sole emperor. After a reign of six- 
ggg teen years he died, leaving the empire divided between his 
Final division two SOUS j Arcadius in the East, (Constantinople,) and Ho- 
ofthe empire. nQ^iyg in the West, (Milan.) The Eastern retained the 
name of Roman empire. It was called Greek, Lower, Byzantine, 
and Eastern Roman Empire. The Western,' called Latin Roman 
Empire, crumbled to pieces, and, in less than one hundred years, was 
settled by barbarians. 
The Latin During the reign of the trembling Honorius Italy was 
empire, j-q^^ years in possession of the Visigoths ; Rome was sacked, 
410 after being three times besieged by the mighty Alaric, and 
''^ Rome" Ravenna became the capital of the ruined empire. 

A.:>Q Africa was torn from the empire by the Vandals. 450, 

Vandals in Attila invaded Gaul and Italy soon after. His death, in 
Africa. 453^ ^vas followed by the dissolution of the tremendous em- 
pire of the Huns. 

4rfL Rome was sacked by the Vandals from Africa; the Visi- 

Gensericin goths became possessed of a large part of Spain and of 

Rome. Gaul; and, finally, A. D. 476, Odoacer, king of the Heruli, 

took the title of King of Italy, and extinguished the Western Roman 

Empire. 



MOVEMENTS OF THE BARBARIANS. Ill 



Historical Sketches of the Movements and final settle- 
ment of the Barbarians. 

Besides being distracted by internal commotions, and broken into 
fragments by usurpers, the frontier provinces of the Roman empire were 
continually subject to incursions from the northerji barbarians. Before 
the age of the Antonines, the Goths from Scandinavia were established 
south of the Baltic, and the Vandals, also from Scandinavia, were 
spread along the banks of the Oder. The Goths are subdivided into 
Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Gepidae; the Vandals into Herulians, 
Burgundians, Lombards, and many other formidable tribes. By the 
year 350 the Franks are settled in Belgium, the Alemanni in Swabia, 
the Visigoths and Ostrogoths north of the Black Sea. After being 
Ostrogoths en- repeatedly driven from Asia Minor and Greece, the Ostro- 
tangied with goths, Or eastern Goths, are in 374 entangled with the Huns, 
a hideous race of deformed savages from Central Asia, 

VISIGOTHS. 

374 The Visigoths, so called from their position west of the Os- 
Visigoths set- trogoths Were driven by the same wild tribe across the Dan- 
tie,in Moesia ube Into Moesia and Thrace, where, on promising to be 
anu race, pg^^,^^^,]^^ obedient subjects, they were allowed to settle. 
But their wandering, predatory habits, rendered submission almost 
impossible. They rebelled against Valens, whose imprudence 
. in admitting them into the empire was now manifest, and 

' °°P^' \a the battle of Adrianople he was defeated and slain. The 
energetic valour of Theodosius for a while suppressed them, but at 
his death, 395, they chose Alaric for their leader; and marching 
Avith rapine, and plunder, and devastation, threatened the very walls 
of Constantinople. They entered Greece, and pursued their course 
as far south as the Peloponnesus, where they were met and driven 
back by the victorious Stilicho, a general of the Western empire. No- 
thing daunted by defeat, they prepared to march into Italy, 
^^' where they met with greater success. In the year 400 the 
trembling Honorius, the feeble emperor of the West, deserted his capi- 
tal, and fled before them to Ravenna. Again they were defeated by 
Stilicho, but in 409, re-entering Italy, they twice besieged Rome. 
The first time their retreat was purchased; but receiving a rein- 
forcement of 300,000 men, Alaric again pitched his camp before the 
imperial city. Being reduced to the most distressing ex- 
'**" tremities by pestilence and famine, the mighty mistress of 
ome a en. ^^^ vvorld opened her gates to the barbarous forces. For 
seven days they laid waste with unsparing hand its costly edifices, and 
revelled among its riches with unrestrained ferocity. Leaving Rome 
a heap of desolate ruins, they proceeded south, intending to pass into 
Sicily and Africa, but the death of Alaric stopped their pro- 
Death ^of Ala- gj,ggg_ j^j ^j^g j^g^ q£ ^^^ jj^gj. Vultumus, (Gibbon says 

Busentinus,) enclosed in three coffins, they left the remains 



112 



OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 



of their chief, and choosing Ataulphus for their leader, marched to the 
south of Gaul. Here, in 412, in the province of Aquitania, 
Toulouse" they established a splendid kingdom, called the kingdom of 
Toulouse, which lasted 100 years. Driven thence by the 
Finally settle Franks, in 493, they finally settled in Spain, where they re- 
lu Spain, mained until " Roderick the last of the Goths" was conquer- 
ed by the Moors in 712. 

SUEVI. 

The brave Suevi are first found filling the country between the Oder 
and the Danube. About the year 210 a mixed body of them began to 
move southward, and taking the name of Alemanni, penetrated, in the 
reign of Valerian and Gallienus, as far as Ravenna. Gallienus suc- 
ceeded in dividing their forces, and in enlisting a body of the Heruli 
in the service of Rome. In 269 they came down upon Moesia and 
Thrace, but were signally defeated, and almost exterminated by the 
emperor Claudius. They afterwards unite with the Vandals and 
Alans, and passing through Gaul, in 409, are again disunited, and 
finally settle in the north-west of Spain. 

BURGUNDIANS. 

While the Visigoths were in Italy, 409, the Burgundians, a tribe of 
^^Q savages from the southern shores of the Baltic, had establish- 
Settiein ^^ themselves in Switzerland and the east of Gaul. They 
Switzerland, were the first barbarians who established laws, and being con- 
verted to Christianity, obtained from the emperor of Constantinople 
the right to govern the original inhabitants. Agriculture and the 
-04 care of their flocks was their peaceful employment, until 
Conquered by ^^^' when they were conquered by Clovis the monarch of 
the Franks, the Franks. 

SAXONS. 

Romans Iji the vear 429 Britain, which had been conquered by 

abandon Bri- n-, ■,- -L, ^„ ^ ,i.r-ii-- 

tain. Claudius Csesar, nity years after the Christian era, was 
abandoned by the Romans, and for twenty years left a prey 
to the incursions of the Picts and Scots. In 449 the Saxons of Ger- 
many, coming ostensibly to deliver the Britains from their 
tbe'^SMms.'' enemies, gradually conquered the country, and at the end of 
150 years established what was termed the Saxon Heptar- 
Heptarchy. chy, or seven kingdoms. The natives retired into Wales, 
and under king Arthur and other brave leaders, for a long 
time annoyed the newly founded kingdom. This government contin- 
ued until 828, when the Heptarchy, under Egbert the Great, 
onarc y. j^jjjg gf Wessex, was reduced to a monarchy. 

VANDALS. 

The Vandals from Scandinavia, the Alans from the country west of 

the Caspian Sea, and the Suevi, the bravest of all the German tribes, 

united in Germany, and after passing through Gaul, crossed the Pyre- 

nflaisin ^^'^^' ^^^ ^" ^^^ again separated, the Alans and Suevi 

> Spain, settling in Portugal, and the Vandals in the south of Spain. 



SETTLEMENT OF THE BARBARIANS. 113 

429 In 429, invited by Count Boniface, the Vandals, under Gen- 
In Africa, geric their king, conquered the Roman province in the north 
of Africa, and formed a settlement there. After traversing 
the coast as far east as Carthage, they embarked for Sicily. Invited. 
^-j- by Eudoxia, the widow of Valentinian 3d, to avenge the 
In Italy, niurder of her husband, in 455, Genseric passed into Italy and 
laid siege to Rome. For fourteen days he abandoned it to 
Takes Rome. ^^ piUaged by his soldiers, and the few monuments of its for- 
mer greatness left by Alaric, were levelled with the dust. The Van- 
dals remained in Africa until 535, when Gelimer, their last 
Jueredby*B^ king, Avas conquered by Belisarius, and led in triumph to 
lisarius. the court of Justinian. 

HUNS. 

This most savage of barbarian tribes came from the remote deserts of 

Central Asia. Their first grand movement is in 375. They then 

cross the Volga, enter Europe, and routing the Goths unite 

Huns enter them to their army, and pass on to Hungary, ravaging with 

frightful devastation the north of Greece. Under their re- 

invade Gaul, nowned king Attila they invade Gaul, and lay siege to the 

city of Orleans. Driven from thence by the united forces of 

450 iEtius, the Roman general, and Theodoric, king of the 

^^"'f^°[Cha- Visigoths, they are defeated in 450, with the loss of 300,000 

men at Chalons. They next enter Italy, where, through 

the terror of their arms, the people of many towns submitted, and the 

remainder fled the land, and on seven islands in the sea laid 

Italy. the foundation of the city of Venice, 452. The retreat of 

Attila was purchased by a promise of receiving the princess 

Honoria, the sister of Valentinian 3d, in marriage, and with her an 

immense dower. He returned to his wooden palace beyond 

453 the Danube, and died of apoplexy, after a night spent in 

His death, feasting and revelry, and with him ends the great Hunnish 

empire. 

HERULI, OSTROGOTHS, AND LOMBARDS. 

476 The Heruli, a people of Vandalic origin, and settled for a 
Odoacw king while west of the sea of Asoph, in 476, under Odoacer their 
king, conquer Italy, where having deposed the feeble Au- 
gustulus, Odoacer assumes the title of king of Italy, and thus termin- 
ates the Western Roman Empire. For seventeen years these barba- 
rians keep possession of Italy, until 493, when Theodoric, king of the 
Ostrogoths, (formerly entangled with the Huns,) after threat- 
493 ening Constantinople, conquers Odoacer, and fixing his re- 
•Tbeodoric the sidence at Ravenna, in his turn becomes king of Italy. Mean- 

Ostrogoth. . X-, T • 1 • ■ 1 r T • • L J 

time Belisarius, the victorious general oi Justinian, nad 

conquered the Vandals of Africa, and in 535 he entered Italy. After 

great prodigies of valour, he subdued the Ostrogoths, and Italy in the 

year 550 became a part of the Eastern Roman Empire. 

550 Under the administration of Narses, it for a while enjoyed 

Eastern Em- peace and prosperity ; but Narses falling under the displea- 

^"°^'" sure of the emperor Justin 2d, betrayed his country by invit- 

15 



114 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 

568 in^ Alboin king of the Lombards to the invasion of Italy. 
Lombards, jjj ^QQ^ leaving Pannonia, where they occupied the lands 
formerly deserted by the Ostrogoths, the Lombards enter Italy, and 
without plunder, march peacefully and in good order through the coun- 
try. After many towns had opened their gates to them, they establish- 
ed their capital at Pavia, and took possession of the north and middle 
of Italy, leaving to the eastern emperors only Ravenna and Ancona 
on the eastern coast, Rome and Naples on the western coast. These 
towns were governed by exarchs, and this relative position of the Lom- 
bards and Eastern emperors, caused continual warfare, until 774, when 
Charlemagne conquered the whole, and added Italy to the empire of 
the Franks. 

FRANKS. 

About 240, A. D., the name of Franks, or Freemen, is supposed to 
have originated in a confederacy of some barbarous tribes about the 
Rhine and Weser, and in twenty years they pushed their conquests 
through Gaul and Spain and passed into Africa. 

. Again, in 486, an association of these people, under Clovis, 

aov^ entered Gaul, and after gaining several battles over the Bur- 

gundians, were baptized into the Christian faith. The pos- 

gQQ sessions of Alaric, king of the Visigoths, were next attack- 

Gaui changed cd with equal success, and before the year 500 the Avhole 

to France, country was conquered. 



Historical Sketch of the Greek, or Eastern Roman 
Empire, from A. D. 441 to the time of Charle- 
m,agne.^ 

441 In the reign of Theodosius the younger, successor of Ar- 

^emp^r^e!'' cadius, Attila ravaged the east, as far as Constantinople. 

Passing several obscure names we reach the family of 

527 Justinian, the greatest of the eastern emperors. He suc- 
Justinian. ceeded his uncle, Justin the elder, who had risen from the 
peasantry to the throne. The reign of Justinian is rendered famous 
by his Code of Laws, and by the success of his generals, Belisarius 
and Narses. . Belisarius wrested Africa from the Vandals, subdued 
Sicily and a great part of Italy, and regained Rome. The jealousy 
of Justinian recalled him to Constantinople ; and his conquests rapidly- 
fell back into the hands of Totila, the Ostrogoth. He was again sent, 
and retook Rome ; but his progress was hindered by the meanness of 
his master, who, finally rewarded his faithful services by ignominy, a 
prison, and death. Rome remained in the possession of the Greek 
empire until 568, during the reign of Justin 2d, when a great part of 
Italy was taken by the Lombards. 

610 Heraclius, the first of his family, came to the throne. He is 
famous for his great victories over the Persians in many campaigns. 

* A continuation from the History of the Roman Emperors. 



HISTORY OF GAUL. 115 

Mahomet first tried his sword against foreigners in an invasion of 
Syria during this reign ; and his successors stripped the old monarch 
of Syria, Africa, and all his acquisitions in Persia. 

The Heraclian family filled the throne during the seventh century 
and were followed by the Isaurian ; so called from their native place' 
Isauria, in Asia Minor. They were Iconoclasts — image breakers. * 

When persecution ceased and Christianity triumphed, its professors 
fell from the first spirituality of their faith, and looked for something 
of corporeal presence — that the eye might behold, the hands touch — to 
call their wandering minds back to devotion. Images and idolatry 
were introduced. A pretended likeness of our Saviour, painted by St. 
Luke, long concealed, was miraculously discovered. As it was an 
undoubted likeness, and painted by a saint, they thought there could 
be no harm in adoring it. This was the beginnmg of image worship. 
Likenesses of the Virgin Mary and of all the Apostles were found in 
the same manner ; and, in the time of Leo the Isaurian, all the East 
consented to worship them. 

Leo the A simple, uncultivated man, of strong native sense, an 

Iconoclast. Jsaurian general raised himself to the throne of Constanti- 
nople ; ana looking upon this idolatry with disgust, called a council, 
which forbade the worship of images. The decree was carried into 
effect by the sword, and Constantinople became the scene of civil war. 
Images were destroyed throughout the eastern churches. The em- 
perors then endeavoured to carry the edict into effect in their domini- 
ons on the coasts of Italy. Rome and Ravenna revolted, but Naples 
and the south submitted to the command. 

The fourth of the Isaurian family is reigning when we take leave of 
them, A. D. 800. 



Continuation of the History of Gaul, to the time of 
Charlemagne, A. D. 800, 

Gaul always Though Gaul generally remained submissive, the vigil- 

©XDOSGu to iri~ o o rf ' o 

cursionsfromanceof the Roman emperors was always necessary to defend 
^barSns.^'^ the German and Batavian frontiers. Germany beyond the 
Rhine was often penetrated by Roman armies, but never quite 
subdued. Defeats were frequent and fatal, victories costly and fruit- 
less. Emperor after emperor had to repeat the defensive wars of his 
predecessor. In the time of Augustus even the Roman arms suffered 
the most shameful disgraces, and mutiny increased these horrors in 
the time of Tiberius. In the time of Vespasian, the famous Batavian 
Civilis armed and inflamed his nation, and with them enlisted the 
whole German nation in a most frightful rebellion. 
Gaul conquered Gaul often stood Separate from the Roman empire under 
bytheFranks. usurpers. Its painful recovery by the emperors aggravated 
the miseries of the world. About A. D. 250, we find the savage 
Franks and Allemani planted along the Rhine ; from which time the 
Roman arms were perpetually exercised in defending Gaul against 



116 OUTLINE OP HISTORY. 

their dreadful inroads. At last, about A. D. 500, the Franks having 
first overcome the Allemani, spread themselves over Gaul, to which, 
from them, the name of France was fixed, instead of Gaul. The Bur- 
gundians and Visigoths, who had previously settled in Gaul, were 
obliged either to submit to the Franks, or flee into other countries, as 
the Visigoths did into Spain. 

The ciovingian Clovis was a politic and enterprising prince, and estab- 
race, from ciovis, lishcd a powerful kingdom. But though he embraced the 
thrMetovingian, Christian faith through the persuasion of his wife, Clotil- 
from Merovffius ^^ g^nd made his Pagan Franks follow his example, yet 

his grandfather- '.,, , u • i r .. ^u ■ • • \ f 

about 250 years, neither he nor his people ever lorgot their original te- 

from about'A.D. ^„„u^-r 

500 to 750. ■ rocity. 

After the death of Clovis, the custom of dividing the 
French monarchy among several sons, led to the most frightful cruel- 
ties and disorders. The final and total degeneracy of the whole race 
threw all the royal power into the hands of hereditary ministers, call- 
ed Mayors of the palace. Pepin the Elder, Charles Martel, and the 
second or younger Pepin, ruled France under this singular title, while 
the slumbering kings, mere phantoms of royalty, only retained the 
mere name. 

Cariovm<'ian or Pepin the Second reduced the last Ciovingian king to a 
PepingiatTkings, mouk, and United the title of king to the power which he 
froraVso to^iooo! already possessed, 750, and obtained the papal sanction 
L^**^-] to his usurpation, 

Frank Western Pepin, and after him his son Charlemagne, (Charles 
Roman Empire, the Great,) grow in power, and triumphed in arms, till, 
under the latter, Lombardy, (Italy,) Germany, and part of Spain re- 
ceived the yoke of the French. After thirty cruel and bloody cam- 
paigns, Charles assumed the splendid title of Charles Augustus Csesar, 
Emperor of the West, with the solemn sanction of the pope at Rome, 
A. D. 800 ; and thus we have a French Western empire, or Western 
Roman empire, restored by Franks. 

But this splendid fabric, fcotemporary with the great Saracen em- 
pire,) was dissolved almost as soon as Charlemagne died, by family 
discord and papal intrigue. The imperial title was perpetuated in the 
same family till 712, when it passed to the Germans ; but it continu- 
ally shifted from one branch to another, and from one country to ano- 
ther, till it finally rested, 912, on the imperial Caesars of Germany, 
and the German Carlovingian branch became then extinct. In France 
th.e degenerate Carlovingians continued till Hugh Capet deposed the 
last of the race, 987. 



RECAPITULATION. 117 



Jl recapitulation of the Roman History, from A.D. 1, 
to the reign of Charlemagne, A.D. 800. 

4th Period. T\\e first, Hiost natural, and most imposins" reflection is, 

(Inipenal Rome) , , . . , , . . ^ ^ in 

250 years from that this period presents the origin, propagation, and nery 
A^\-\M.'mk ordeal of CHRisTiANixr. A universal empire, and two uni- 

Au.c 750— to versal languages facilitated the intercourse of men, and 
the whole imp" the propagation of the gospel. How the foresight of the 

rial fabric was f^n^ triumph of such a religion, 325, (see next period,) 

rent mto frag- r. i /-,i • • ° i \ n / 

ments by usurpers and 01 a Universal Christian monarchy at Kome, (see pe- 
and competitors. ^-^^^ j^ ^^^^^ Rome,) would have confounded the mind of 
Augustus Cfesar ! 

What a field for an imperial master, either to display splendid vir- 
tues or perpetuate enormous crimes — in an immense empire, assimi- 
lated and cemented by the artful policy of ages ! But bad men gene- 
rally prevailed, and Rome, excepting a few illustrious intervals, gene- 
rally declined in virtue, power, and unity, till it was even prematurely 
dissolved ; for it required enormous violence to rend asunder parts so 
firmly woven together. The idea is too immense to find place even 
in the most contemplative mind. Virtues and crimes, disorders and 
their remedies — all on a grand scale of magnificence. Whether the 
emperor was a patriot, a philosopher, a tyrant, a stage actor, or a buf- 
foon, he performed on the same magnificent stage. The same impe- 
rial code, the same spirit of despotism pervading the whole ; it formed 
one immense prison, from which the accused or oppressed could only 
escape to their inevitable fate among the wild savages of the inhospita- 
ble deserts around. 

In this age the edict of an execrable tyrant, Caracalla, extended the 
bounds of the Roman city (legally) to the utmost limits of the empire. 
In one breath the most remote subjects were all declared Roman citi- 
zens, with all the privileges of native citizens ; and condemned to the 
same vexatious taxes, tributes, and exactions. The mind shrinks at the 
thought of such a world, convulsed within, and assailed on all sides by 
howling savages and wild barbarians. But such is the appalling pic- 
ture presented, 250, at the end of this gloomy period ; and the empire 
is entirely dissolved, divided among competitors, and assailed on all 
sides. 

5th Period. Though we find the empire in confusion, yet the idea 

Imperial Rome, of its Unity was Still Sufficiently pervading to encourage 

A.n'^^o.'when the splendid talents and efforts of Probus, Claudius, Aure- 

Romaniawas j^^n, Diocletian, Constantine, and Theodosius, in their re- 

prematurely and . . . , . it tit 

transiently dis- spective times, in reducing to obedience the revolted pro- 
thrcomp?ere"oc- vinces. From the commencement of this period we find 
cupation of the the Franks and Alemanni already seated on the Rhine, 
ifarbariMs?^ and the Ostrogoths and Visigoths on the North of the 
A.D. 500. Black Sea. The Huns also rushed from Asia unto Eu- 
rope, 374, and subdued the Ostrogoths, and chased the Visigoths into 



118 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 

Thrace. All these new savage races exercised the vigilance of the 
emperors, and helped to precipitate the downfall of the empire. 
325 Triumphand '^^^ cruel and wanton persecutions of this age, (those 
corruption of of Decius, Valerian, Auvelian, and Diocletian,) were ar- 
Chrisiianity. j-gg^^^j^ 325^ by the triumph of Constantine the Great over 
all colleagues and competitors, which proved also the final triumph of 
Christianity over Paganism. Constantine unfortunately not only gave 
the Church a legal existence, hut made it an affair of the state. The 
wealth and power he conferred on the Church corrupted Christianity, 
and proved a greater burthen to the Church than all the Pagan perse- 
cutions, which had tended to preserve its simplicity and purity. Be- 
sides, the moment that the Pagan persecutions ceased, Christians di- 
vided into innumerable hostile sects, and persecuted one another with 
the most implacable and unrelenting fury. 

Circumstances tending to the division and dissolution of the empire ; 
Milan, capital of the West ; Constantinople, or New Rome ; frequent 
divisions among colleagues and competitors. The new organization 
of the empire made by Diocletian, placed the East and the West each 
under the immediate charge of a distinct emperor, (imperial colleagues,) 
while, at the same time, it preserved the unity of the whole, by.a uni- 
formity of imperial laws and edicts. Without the ascendant genius of 
Diocletian, the frequent repetition of the same division afterwards, weak- 
ened the bond of union, by making the idea of division familiar; and 
it even awakened ideas of separate and conflicting interests. The con- 
venient removal of the imperial residence from Rome to Milan, towards 
the German frontier, soon broke the charm of Roman supremacy ; and 
Constantinople, (the New Rome, and rival Rome of the East,) had the 
same tendency. The almost continual division of the empire among 
the sons and successors of Constantine, finally resulted in a complete 
and permanent division into East and West, at the death of Theodosius 
the Great, A. D. 395. The Eastern Roman Empire was called also 
Greek, Lower, Byzantine Empire, or Empire of Constantinople. It 
lasted till 1453. 

The dissolution of the Western Roman Empire begins 
at once after this division. Ravenna becomes the capital 
of the West, instead of Milan. This division of the empire, between 
Honorius and Arcadius, the sons of Theodosius, was not a more formal 
separation, than was usual between two colleagues. But the East and 
the West had distinct interests, dangers, and calamities, and the West 
began at once to yield, piecemeal, to the savage Germans. 

The Visigoths who had been driven (374) by the hide- 
Barbarian settle- ous and deformed Huns, into Moesia and Thrace, began 
from^400^5oa''^'^ the work of desolation in Greece as soon as Theodosius 
died, 395. From Greece they went into Italy twice, be- 
sieged and sacked Rome, 409, and were persuaded, 412, to pass into 
Gaul and establish in Aquitania the Visigothic kingdom of Thoulouse. 
In the meantime, the trembling Honorius had fled before Alaric, the 
Visio-othic king, when he first entered Italy ; and changed the impe; 
rial residence from Milan to Ravenna, which long continued the capi- 
tal of Italy. In 409, just before the Visigoths settled in Aquitania, the 
Vandals passed through Gaul, and settled in the south of Spain ; while 



RECAPITULATION. 119 

the Burgundians, the same year, 409, crossed the Rhine into Helvetia 
and the east of Gaul. In 429, the province of Africa became a Van- 
dal kingdom. In 449, the Saxons began to conquer Britain, which 
the emperor had abandoned twenty years before to the mercy of the 
Picts and Scots. The Saxons, however, did not complete the conquest 
of England till 600. About 450, the terrible Huns scourged Gaul and 
Italy, but did not settle in any province. In 455, Genseric, the Van- 
dal king of Africa, sacked Rome. The succession of western empe- 
rors finally ended in 476, when Odoacer, king of the Heruli, subdued 
Italy, and took the title of king of Italy instead of emperor. Thouo-h 
this was the end of the western Roman ' empire, there was still a 
part of Gaul that was Roman, that is, was not yet occupied by barba- 
rians ; but in 486, Clovis, king of the Franks, in the fifth year of 
his reign, conquered Syagrius, the last Roman governor, and in the 
course of about twenty-five years, Gaul became the kingdom of the 
Franks. The Visigoths of Aquatania were gradually driven into 
Spain, which became a Visigothic monarchy about 500; and the Bur- 
gundians and Alemanni we also obliged to submit to the Franks, 
In the mean time, the Ostrogoths entered Italy, 493, subdued the 
Heruli, and swayed the country till 535. 

About 435, Ostrogothia, or the Ostrogothic kingdom of 
The*w^sf"occu- ^^^^y"' ^^^ assailed by the arms of the Eastern emperor 
pied by barbari- Justinian, whose famous general Belisarius, after reduc- 
from A/D. JocTto ^"o ^^^ Vandal kingdom of Africa, under his Eastern 
750, when Some master, was occupied from 535 to 550 in subduing and 
Kome.*^^ ^^^ re-subduing Italy and Sicily. Thus Italy in its turn be- 
came a province of the East, and Old Rome was subjected 
to New Rome. (Constantinople.) 

Exarchate nd ^^^^^ ^^^ Africa Were splendid acquisitions to the East, 
Lombardy. but on the death of Justinian, 568, the fierce Lombards 
rushed into Italy, conquered the north and central re- 
gions, and established the kingdom of Lombardy, which lasted 206 
years, from 568 to 774. The emperors of Constantinople still retained 
both coasts, and the south, including on one side Rome and Naples, 
and on the other Ravenna and Ancona. These possessions were gov- 
erned by an Eastern governor, called exarch of Ravenna, and that part 
of Italy that belonged to the East, was the exarchate. 
Bishops of Rome, '^^^ division of Italy between the Lombards and Greek 
(popes,) and pa- emporors, proved most unhappy, and the feeble emperors, 
*" stantinopie ;°°" assailed by Persians and Saracens on the east, maintain- 
schismoftheeast ed a precarious and contested authority over their part of 

and west; image t^ i j ^i r • t it ^ ii i 

war; revolt of Italy; and the lerocious Lombards preyed on all the rest. 
anTi5!)"pe. ^°'"^' '^^^ P°P® ^"^ patriarch of Constantinople were in a con- 
tinual wrangle. Safe in his distant province, the bishop of 
Rome assumed, even towards his Greek emperor, a bold and lofty style 
of defiance, and the pious shepherd insensibly gained, over his Roman 
flock, the influence of a civil magistrate. As successor to St. Peter, and 
bishop of the ancient metropolis, he claimed the character of universal 
bishop ; his address (about 600) had brought the pagan Saxons, as well 
as the Arian Visigoths and Lombards, into the bosom of the Catholic 
church ; the ignorance of the age, and the alms he distributed from 
his ifnmense revenues, favoured his pretensions. 



120 OUTLINE OF HISTORY. 

Finally Ravenna, Rome, and the pope revolted from 
r"off ^f 'itai*"^ ^^^^'' Gfieek master, who (728) by a decree against images 
ihe pope a prince! and image worship, had kindled a furious religious war 
both in the East and West. The images of course won 
the victory in such an age, and only Naples and the south of Italy re- 
mained subject to the East. 

7th Period After the revolt of Rome and Ravenna, the Lombard 

Papal Rome, 750 king improved the auspicious moment, seized Ravenna, 
ing 'A!D™'"75oi ^^^ ^^^V spared Rome out of respect to the eloquence and 
when the pope be; sacred character of the holy pontiff. But when Rome 

came a temporal , , , i t i i ■ i 

prmce, and end- was threatened by another Lombard prmce less scrupu- 
the protestant're" ^°"^' ^^ sought the protection of his pious friend Pepin, 
formation arrest- the Frank. Pepin was not only able to save, but willing 

ed the career of ^ ^ • , ^r, • ^- r .u i, l r 

papal ambiUon. to accept, m return, the gracious sanction of the holy la- 
ther, to his usurpation of the throne of France, (see Gaul.) 
He flew to the relief of his holiness, retook Ravenna from the Lom- 
bards, and piously gave the spoil to St. Peter, whose pretended suc- 
cessor, the bishop of Rome, took the earthly charge of the sacred patri- 
mony. Already a magistrate at Rome, the pope now becomes a tem- 
poral prince, as vicegerent of a saint in heaven ! From this time we 
may more particularly style Rome papal; though the pope did not 
become a formidable potentate till after the death of his powerful pro- 
tectors, Pepin and Charlemagne. 

The Franks allowed the Lombards to retain their an- 
Lom°b'aidy^ "and cieut possessions till 774, when Charlemagne, the son of 
Chari^"^<'ne P^pin, being called into Italy to protect Rome against the 
Lombards, conquered their country, and was crowned 
king of Lombardy. In thirty cruel campaigns he conquered Ger- 
many, and baptized the pagan Saxons at the point of the sword. Part 
of Spain was also added to his immense empire. 

Charlemagne (Charles the Great) being invited to . 
800 Rome to protect Pope Leo III, against the fury of his own 
Roman Empire, Aock, was solemnly crowned emperor of the West, under 
orWesternRome the name of Charles Augustus Cssar. (See Gaul.) As 
lema^e. ^ * Rome was expressly included in this great political fabric, 
the relation between the pope and the new emperor was of 
a very delicate nature. But the ascendancy of Charlemagne was not 
to be shaken by a priest who was unable to control his own flock ; and 
mutual good offices preserved a gracious and undisturbed intimacy. 
The papal sanction to the usurpation of Pepin and Charlemagne, and 
the holy unction, poured on the imperial head, were not trifles likely 
to be overlooked by future popes, who could dexterously employ them 
in extorting new concessions, or baffle weak princes by withholding 
them. Though the supremacy of Charlemagne over Rome and the 
pope was clear and undisputed, yet future popes could choose between 
rival candidates, and the one a pope chose to approve and anoint, was 
most likely to prevail in a disputed succession. By these means it was 
that succeeding popes arrayed people against their princes, one prince 
against another, and even sons against their fathers ; and caught the 
balance of political power, which they managed with sufficient dexte- 
rity to erect at Rame a throne of despotism tenfold more frightful than 



SARACENS, 



121 



that of the worst tyrants of ancient imperial Rome. No sooner Avas 
Charlemagne dead, than the succeeding popes began to inflame, in- 
stead of healing the discord of his descendants ; and this artful policy- 
soon made them the arbiters of princes. 



Historical sketch of the Saracens. 



The terra Sa- 
racen. 



The term Saracen signifies Arabian and Mahometan, and 
includes an idea of conquest. It was originally merely the 
designation of a single tribe in Arabia. 

There are two successive Mahometan empires, viz. The Saracen or 
Arabian Mahometan empire, and the Turkish Mahometan empire. 
To the Saracen Mahometan empire may be allowed four periods, viz. 

\st Period. — The period of the elective caliphs residing at Medina, 
viz. Mahomet, Abubeker, Omar, Othman, Ali. This period extended 
from 622 to 665, or 43 years. 

2c? Period. — The period of the Oramiades, or the hereditary ca- 
liphs, descended from Ommyah, (whence they derive their name,) re- 
siding at Damascus. This period extends from 665 to 750, when 
Spain separated under an Ommiades prince, a period of 85 years. 

2d Period. — -The first period of the Abbassides, or caliphs descend- 
ed from Abbas, an uncle of the prophet residing at Bagdad. This 
period extends from 750 to 850, 100 years. This is the glorious mag- 
nificent and powerful period of the Abbassides. 

Ath Period. — The second period of the Abbassides at Bagdad, being 
the falling or crumbling period of the Saracen empire, extending from 
850 to 1258. 

TABLE OF SARACEN CONQUESTS. 



A. D. 569 
609 
622 
629 
632 

Commence- 
ment of the 
conquests. 
632 



632 



Birth of Mohammed. 
Begins to preach. 
Hegira, or Flight. 
Conquest of Arabia. 
Death of Mohammed. 



Begin to conquer Syria. 
Battle of Bozrah, 632. 
Battle of Aiznadin, 633. 
Siege and capture of 

Damascus, 634. 
Capture of Balbec and 

Emessa, 635. 
Battle on the Yermuk, 

636. 
Surrender of Jerusalem, 

637. 
Surrender of Aleppo and 

Antioch, 638. 
Pinal conquest of Syria. 
Commencement of the 

conquest of Persia. 

Battle of Cadesia, 638. 
Capture of Ctesiphon, 

638. 
Final conquest of Persia 



End of the 

conquests. 

638 



638 
651 



651 



Commence- 
ment of the 
conquests. 
A. D. 638 



709 



711 

823 

827 



Begin the conquest of 
Egypt. 

Capture of Pelusium and 
Memphis, 638. 

Capture of Alexandria, 
and final conquest of 
Egypt ••• 

Final conquest of Africa, 
by the taking of Car- 
thage. ... — 

Conquest of Spain, ex- 
cept Asturias 

Conquest of Crete 

Conquest of Sicily, ex- 
cept Syracuse, 

Capture of Syracuse, 

878. 

Saracen settlements in 
Calabria. 



£nd. 
639 



639 

709 

714 

823 

828 



16 



122 



SARACENS 



MOHAMMED. 



A.D. 569 Mohammed, the Arabian prophet, was born of a princely 
BornatMecca. jj^g ^j. Mecca, Naturally enthusiastic, superstitious, and 
addicted to the study of religious mysteries, he listened eagerly to the 
doctrines of the Jews, Christians and Persians, whom he met in the 
short excursions which he made for the purposes of trade in the neigh- 
bourhood. He embraced the sublime idea of the unity of the divine 
Spirit, rejected the idolatrous worship of his countrymen, and set about 
framing a new religion for them. At the age of forty he gave out that 
he was inspired, the chosen minister of God on earth, and 
609 began to preach his religion. The labour of the first three 
pteacbT years was not very encouraging — it produced him but four- 
teen converts, including the rich widow Cadijah, Avhom he 
had married, and his cousin All. Their numbers however increased, 
until, in 622, he had become sufficiently important to be driven from 
Mecca bv the Korish, the guardians of the old religion. 
D^^ This Hegira, or flight of Mahommed, is the year 1 of Ma- 
^^"^" hometans. At Medina, he was received as a prince and 
prophet, and the ten years of his residence in that city were ten years 
of conquest. All Arabia was subdued, and Ishmael's roving 
5?2 children then first acknowledged a single leader. He died 

Died. . -Ml A- ^ ° 

at Medma. 
The choice of his successor gave rise to the great schism which still 
survives in the hatred of the Persians and Turks. The former revere 
Ali as the vicar of God — the latter deny his right of succession. The 
Persians are denominated Scheyes, or Shiites, their enemies Sunnees, 
or Sonnites. 

The good old Abubeker, father-in-law of Mohammed, in his short 
reign, began, through his general Kaled, the sword of God, that tre- 
mendous course of conquest which was destined to carry their victo- 
rious arms over a great part of the Eastern hemisphere. Thirty-six" 
thousand cities and villages are said to have been subdued by Omar, 
and the first century of conquest placed Persia, Syria, Egypt, Africa, 
and Spain in the hands of the Saracens. 

About the year 700 they overcame the Moors, or Berbers of Africa, 
who adopted the language and manners of their conquerors, and grad- 
ually became confounded with them. They passed over to- 
'1* gether to the conquest of Spain. Under the Ommiades 
°°s^paUi. ° Constantinople was twice besieged. In 668 the Saracens 
first approached it, and seven successive years brought im- 
mense armies for its destruction. They were repulsed by Greek 
fire. In 717 they made another unsuccessful attempt. Constantinople 
stood, its people were degenerate, but the place was strong, and its 
new and mysterious weapon of destruction carried terror before it. In 
both sieges the Saracen fleets were consumed. 

Though Constantinople locked the door of Europe on the 

'^1. East, the Saracens had already entered it on the West, and 

France." crossing the Pyrenees, they desolated France to the Loire. 

Charles Martel proceeded cautiously, allowed them to grow 

careless and fancy themselves secure, and then coming upon them, he 



SARACENS. 123 

shut them up in Bouillet in Poictou, and left more than 350,000 Sara- 
cens dead upon the field. Thus Charles Martel and Constantinople 
saved Europe from the Mohammedan yoke. Vast numbers of Sara- 
cens settled in the south of France. 

,^-^ The last of the Ommiades was slain, and Almansor, of the 
line of Abbas, laid the foundation of Bagdad, and made it the 
seat of government. 

i^p. ;- Abdurrahman, of the family of Ommiades, escaped to Spain, 
and established there an independent caliphate, which lasted 
more than two centuries. 

^j^^ We find Haroun Al Raschid reducing to obedience the poor 
Nicephorus, surrounded at Bagdad by luxury and splen- 
dour, patronizing science, literature and the arts, and adorning in his 
own character the golden era of the Saracen empire. He still reign- 
ed in 800. 



A CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX 

Of the most important Events, from the Birth of 
Christ to the Reign of Charlemagne. 

1 Augustus had already reigned forty-one years; about ten 
v3ga?era40M '^^^^ Antony and thirty-one alone. He reigned until A.D. 
14. Christ actually born A. M. 4000, four years earlier. 

50 Britain added to the Roman empire, fifty years after the 
birth of Christ, in the reign of Claudius. It was visited by 
Julius Caesar fifty years before Christ, and finally conquered 
with great difficulty. 

100 Actually 96. Nerva, first of the good emperors, who were 
successively adopted. Happy period for nearly one hundred 
years — except during the horrid reign of Commodus. After 
him anarchy till A. D. 193. 

200 193 Pertinax succeeds the dreadful Commodus, Pertinax 
killed by the pretorians, of whom Julian Didius buys the em- 
pire. Severus on the Danube, Albinus in Britain, Niger in 
Syria. Severus prevails, and disbands the pretorian guards, 
but establishes a new guard of a similar nature. 

225 About this time Parthia changes to Persia, with a new Per- 
sian dynasty. The following interval is filled with the rapid 
succession of emperors — feeble, contemptible. 

250 Thirty tyrants or usurpers. Empire in fragments. Franks 
in Belgium ; Allemanni in Swabia ; Visigoths and Ostro- 
goths, north of the Black Sea. These different hordes of 
savages pressed upon the different frontiers of the empire, 
often made irruptions, and kept the emperors and their pro- 
vinces in constant alarm. 

275 Aurelian dies this year — the conqueror of Zenobia and other 
usurpers. (Zenobia, queen of the East.) Claudian, Aurelian, 
and Probus had short reigns, but they did much towards sav- 
ing the empire. 

284 Diocletian and his imperial colleagues restore the empire, 
but Rome was no longer the capital. Diocletian lived at 
Nicomedia, Maximinian at Milan, Constantius in Britain. 

300 Splendour and triumph of the imperial colleagues, who re- 
stored the empire to its unity, suppressed usurpers, repressed 
Franks, Allemanni, Goths, Persians, &c. Distinction of Au- 
gustus and Caesar. 



I NDEX. 



125 



307 Constantine the Great succeeds his father in Britain ; has 
many competitors, whom he overcomes, one after another, 
until he becomes sole emperor, in 325. 

313 Constantine conquers his competitor and brother-in-law, 
Maxentius, and Rome and Italy submit to him. 

325 Constantine having overcome all competitors, embraced 
Christianity ; called the council of Nice to settle its doctrine, 
and began to build Constantinople. 

327 Constantine dies, dividing his empire between his three sons; 
of whom Constantine reigned three years over Gaul, Spain, 
and Britain, and died in the war he made upon Constans in 
Italy. Constans reigned over Italy three years ; over Italy, 
Gaul, and Britain, thirteen years, *and died 350, leaving the 
whole empire to Constantius. These three brothers, from 
jealousy, put to death nearly all their relatives. 

350 Constantius sole emperor after the death of both his brothers. 
He first made his cousin Gallus his colleague and Csesar, 
but soon put him to death for his enormous vices. 

355 Constantius makes his cousin Julian, Csesar ; sends him to 
Gaul against the Franks and Allemanni, who laid waste that 
province. Julian's great fame and success excites his envy. 

360 Constantius sends for Julian's best legions ; these refusing to 
leave Julian, proclaim him Augustus, and march against 
Constantius, who dies, and Julian is sole emperor. Julian 
dies in Parthia. 

Valentinian rules in the West, and Valens in the East. Va- 
lentinian succeeded by his son Gratian in the West. 

375 The savage, deformed, hideous Huns, Tartars, from Asia, 
crossed the Wolga, entered Europe, routed the Alans and 
Ostrogoths, entangled themselves in the empire, and passed 
on to Hungary. 

In the mean time the terrified Visigoths fled to the Danube, 
got permission of Valens to settle in Moesia and Thrace ; 
rose in rebellion, killed Valens in the fatal battle of Adrian- 
ople ; and were painfully repressed by Theodosius the Great, 
successor to Valens. 

395 Theodosius divides the empire into East and West, and leaves 
both empires a prey to the Visigoths and Huns. Alaric, 
king of the Visigoths, ravages Greece. 

400 On the entrance of Alaric into Italy with his Visigoths, Ho- 
norius fled from Milan to Ravenna, which became the capi- 
tal of the West, on account of the security offered by the 
water on one side and impassable marshes on the other. 



126 INDEX. 

409 Burgundians settle in Switzerland and the east of Gaul. 
Vandals pass through Gaul into Spain, after which the feeble 
Romans have but little authority in Spain. 

413-14-15 Alaric sacks Rome after three sieges. Dies in the south 
of Italy, and his Visigoths follow a new leader into Gaul ; 
where they founded a Visigothic kingdom. 

425 Honorius dies ; his sister, Placidia, reigns as regent for her 
son, Valentinian 3d. 

429 Vandals under Genseric, invited by Count Boniface, pass 
into Africa, and subduing that Roman province, establish a 
Vandal kingdom. The Britons, abandoned by the Romans 
and restored to independence, were unable to defend them- 
selves against the Picts and Scots. 

449 Saxons begin to settle in Britain. 

450 Attila, king of the Huns, lays waste Gaul and the north of 
Italy, after he was defeated at Chalons. Venice built in the 
sea by those who fled from Attila. Theodosius 2d dies. 

455 Death of Valentinian 3d ; whose widow, Eudoxia, married 
his murderer, Maximus, who succeeded : but, on discovering 
the murder, she invited Genseric from Africa, who sacked 
Rome fourteen days, and carried off plunder, Eudoxia and 
all, into Africa. 

476 Odoacer, king of the savage Heruli, conquers Italy, deposes 
Augustulus, the last feeble emperor. Odoacer sends the im- 
perial ornaments, as so many bagatelles, to Constantinople, 
and takes the title of king of Italy, instead of preserving the 
vain title of emperor, when all the provinces were severed 
from the empire by other rude savages. This year (476) 
is called the end of the Western Roman Empire. As an 
empire, it had been rent and reduced before, by Burgundi- 
ans, Vandals, Visigoths, Saxons, &c. 

481 to 500 During this period the Franks under Clovis pushed from 
Belgium into Gaul, and vanquished the Burgundians and 
Visigoths. The Ostrogoths, who were disentangled from 
the llunnish empire on the death of Attila, enter Italy, after 
menacing Constantinople ; conquered Odoacer, and Theodo- 
sius their king became king of Italy, 493. 

500 The end of the Western Roman Empire is dated 476, ^see 
above,) and was in fact rent to pieces before that period ; yet 
the barbarians did not become settled and quiet in their re- 
spective provinces until about this date, 500; but now the 
Franks are spread over Gaul. The Visigoths retiring be- 
fore the conquering Franks, settle in Spain ; the Vandals 
have passed into Africa, 429. The Ostrogoths were estab- 
lished in Italy since 493, under the Great Theodoric. The 



INDEX. 127 

Saxons are making great progress in Britain; arid thus the 
wreck of the Great Western Empire is divided among sav- 
ages : but New Rome, or Constantinople, will long resist 
the dreadful shock. 

525 About this time the Great Theodoric dies in Italy, and leaves 
his kingdom in the feeble hands of his daughter and her mi- 
nor son. Justinian began to reign, at Constantinople, 527 : 
a man who had the discernment and wisdom to select the 
best men to conduct every department of his affairs. 

535 About this time Belisarius, the general of Justinian, subdued 
the Vandals, and added Africa to the Eastern Empire ; then 
invaded Sicily and Italy; and, after prodigies of valour, sub- 
dued the Ostrogoths, and added Italy to the Eastern Empire; 
which, however, was not wholly completed until 550. 

550 By this time all farther resistance of the Ostrogoths to Justi- 
nian becomes vain : Italy and Africa belongs to him. Turk- 
ish Pagan Empire begins east of the Caspian. No Moham- 
medans yet. These Pagan Turks east of the Caspian, in 
the interior of Asia, these Scythians or Tartars, long after, 
become Mohammedans, and overrun the west of Asia, &c., 
not until after A. D. 1000. 

568 Justinian dies. Lombards rush into Italy from Pannonia, 
conquer the North and middle, leaving Ravenna, Ancona 
and the east coast, Rome, Naples and the west coast, to the 
Eastern emperors, until about 750. The relative position of 
the Lombards and Eastern emperors was always perplexing, 
and finally led to great events from 725 to 750. The empe- 
rors had exarchs, that is out-rulers residing at Ravenna, 
which was then called the Exarchate. 

581 About this time the language of Italy undergoes a change. 
The barbarous tongues of the several nations who had over- 
run Italy, Heruli, Ostrogoth*, Lombards, had corrupted and 
confounded the Latin. 

600 The Heptarchy now completed. Gregory 1st, or Great, 
(who began his pontificate 590,) sends St. Augustine and 
others to convert the pagan Saxons. Under this pope the papal 
jurisdiction was also extended over the Arian Visigoths and 
Lombards, who were all converted to the catholic faith. 

601 Mohammed begins to preach at Mecca. Heraclius begins 
to reign at Constantinople. Chosroes, king of Persia, con- 
quers Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, a part of Egypt, &c. 

622 Hegira, or flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina. Mo- 
hammed a prince, a prophet ; returns, converts his relatives 
and friends in Mecca at the sword's point, and conquers 
Arabia. From this time, and not before, we call the Ara- 



128 INDEX. 

bians Saracens, which of course applies only to Arabians from 
the time of Mohammed. 

633 Mohammed died, but his successors soon conquered Pales- 
tine and Syria from the Eastern emperors — at the same time 
with other armies conquered Persia. 

650 By about this time the Saracens, that is, the Arabian Moham- 
medan empire, extended to Media in the East, and five years 
after to Egypt. Amrou conquered Egypt and burned the 
famous Alexandrian library, founded by the Ptolemies. After 
the conquest of Egypt, the Saracens push on gradually 
through Africa, until about TOO, by which time it is all con- 
quered. 

665 Damascus becomes the seat of the caliphs instead of Medina. 
Ommyades caliphs resigned at Damascus, that is caliphs de- 
scended from a man named Ommyah. The Saracens still 
prosecute their war in Africa against the Eastern Emperors. 

675 Saracens besieged Constantinople, which was saved by Greek 
fire. The Saracens never succeeded in passing into Europe 
by Constantinople, though they long attempted it. 

700 From 632 to 700. the Saracens had conquered from the 
Eastern emperors, or emperors of Constantinople, parts of 
Asia Minor and the whole coast of Africa. 

712 Saracens, under the name of Moors, which means Saracens 
from Morocco, conquer Spain. Thus the Saracens entered 
Europe from Morocco. A handful of Christian Visigoths in 
Asturias. 

717 Saracens a second time unsuccessfully besiege Constantino- 
ple. The few Christians saved in Asturias resist the Sara- 
cens of Spain, and gradually increase at the expense of the 
Saracens. The Saracens were not all driven out till after 
800 years. They were driven out of Grenada by Ferdi- 
nand 1500. 

725 About this time, the Isaurian family, reigning at Constantino- 
ple, became zealous Iconoclasts, or Image-breakers. They 
could execute their edicts at Constantinople, but not in Italy. 
All this time the war is about images. The Eastern empe- 
rors Avere determined to enforce their edicts in Italy, and the 
popes and Italians determined to resist. The Lombards took 
advantage of the quarrel, and twice took Ravenna and threat- 
ened Rome, in which case the popes or bishops of Rome had 
recourse to the Franks, first Charles Martel and then Pepin, 
who said " anoint me king." 

733 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens and drives them out of 
France, and saves Europe from the darkness of Mohamme- 
danism. 



INDEX. 129 

750 Bagdad the Saracen capital instead of Damascus. Abbassa- 
des caliphs. Spain separated under a branch of Ommyades. 
Pepin, Popes, Bagdad. Pepin 1st, Carlovingian. Popes 
become temporal princes. The Abbassades caliphs, (that is 
descended from Abbas, uncle of Mahomet,) at Bagdad intro- 
duced their splendour, learning, &c. Pepin made popes 
princes. Popes anointed Pepin. 

768 Charlemagne became king of France by the death of his 
father Pepin. 

774 Charlemagne conquers the Lombards in Italy, and in the 
mean while prosecutes his ambitious Avars and superstitious 
conquests in Germany against the pagan Saxons, whom he 
conquered and converted in thirty cruel campaigns. His 
wars with them lasted till 800, In the mean time Charle- 
magne also conquered Spain to the Ebro. 

800 Charlemagne crowned emperor of the West at Rome, with 
the title of Charles Augustus Cmsar. Papal oil and sanc- 
tions fruitful of future quarrels. The conquest and final 
crowning of Charlemagne is called the Restoration of the 
Western Roman Empire. It did not, however, include 
Britain, Africa, nor all Spain. It must be called the Frank 
Western Roman Empire, which soon crumbled to pieces 
under the feeble successors of Charlemagne. 



17 



130 

History of Spain, Gaul, Italy, after the time of 
Charlemagne. 

SPAIN. 

Visigoths. Spain was (A.D. 500) overrun by the savage Visigoths, 
Vandals, &c., tribes from Germany, while the other provinces of the 
Avest shared a similar fate. 

Saracens or The Saracens, or Moors, subdued the Christian Visi- 
on, and"'"'a"re goths, A.D. 711, who did not recover the whole coun- 
noi entirely ex- try till the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, after a san- 

pelled or subdued ■' . ^ i r i ann mi • r 

till the time of gumary Struggle 01 nearly 8U0 years. The marriage oi 
beiiia' a"d tsoo^ Ferdinand and Isabella, and their conquest, united all 
Spain united en- Spain into One monarchy, to which America, Naples, 

terges into an em- g -^jj^^ ^^__ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ j^ 

Charles V. & his ^his great inheritance passed, 1516, to the Austrian 

Austrian succes- Charles V., which was the means of adding Netherlands, 

^'^^^ ' ■ Milan, &c., to this swelling empire, which, under Charles 

and his Austrian successors, formed one of the great states of Europe 

.„ . till 1700, when the chief part of these vast possessions pass- 
French Bourbons , IT-I 11-Wl 1-1 l-"^ 1 

ed to the i rench Bourbons, while the rest reverted to 
Austria. 

GAUL. 

In the age of the Carlovingians, from about 800 to 
1000, A.D., France was generally parcelled out among 
dukes, who acquired direct and absolute control over the people in their 
respective dukedoms; while one of them bore the title of king of France, 
with a certain acknowledged supremacy over the others ; but with no 
direct control over the people, except in his own ducal dominions. This 
kincr looked to the other dukes for homage and military service, and 
the dukes looked to the people for the same. This was called the 
feudal si/stem, and under various modifications generally prevailed in - 
Europe. It grew out of confusion, accident, favoritism, usurpation, &c. 

It was a system of weakness and distraction, opening to artful princes 
and popes the means of humbling a rival, by arraying against him his 
own rebellious dukes and vassals. The king was often braved by his 
dependent dukes, and the duke, by having a direct control over his 
people and revenues, was often more powerful than the king. 

As most of the dukedoms could be inherited by females, it often 
happened that an heiress transferred her inheritance by marriage to a 
foreign and rival sovereign. In this way the Norman and Plantagenet 
kings of England became vassals to the kings of France, and dukes of 
all the provinces from the Channel to the Pyrenees. Though these 
acquisitions placed them in the legal Te]a.tion of vassals to the kings of 
France, yet as these dukes or vassals had the direct control over the 
people and the revenues, the feudal relation was merely nominal. 

Yet the kings of France took advantage of the absence 
Gradual annexa- and occasional weakness of the kings of England, and 
doms'to the crown Conquered all their possessions in France, one after an- 
other. And finally, though slowly, by marriage, conquest, 
purchase, exchange, &c., the kings got all the French dukedoms an- 



ITALY. 131 

nexed to the crown by 1735. Even as early as 1500, (Charles VIII., 
Louis XII., Francis I.,) so many provinces had been gained as to give 
France a new rank among the states of Europe. From the time of 
Francis the First, France was able to make a great struggle against 
the two houses of Austria, (German and Spanish branches; see Spain,) 
till 1700, when Spain and its appendages, after a bloody contest, pass- 
ed from the Austrians to the French Bourbons, whose branches were 
multiplied also in Naples, Sicily, and Parma. 

Even before this multiplication of Bourbon branches, 
Henry IV., Louis XIII. and XIV., had very much influ- 
enced the destinies of Europe. Louis XIV. had domineered over the 
world for forty years, and the Austrians had ceased to be terrible be- 
fore the Spanish branch became extinct; and the Bourbon enterprises 
provoked continual fears and wars, till they were humbled in the long 
and universal wars concluded by the peace of Paris, 1763. The de- 
clining race was swept by the stoi-m of the French revolution. 

Napoleon, by a selfish and rigid despotism, arrested the horrors of 
that revolution, and by his unparalleled success in arms, swelled France 
into a mighty empire. The idolatry of the world, and presumption of 
Napoleon, led him to ruin ; and we see the Bourbons creeping out of 
their hiding places, only to demonstrate that they are incapable of pro- 
fiting by the lessons of adversity and experience. 

ITALY. 
At last, A.D. 912, when the German Carlovingian 
(Holy) Gennan branch became extinct, the German princes established 

Roman Empire, t .. i • r n i i • i- /-i 

including both an elective chiei, called king or emperor oi Germany. 
the"erajeror'llfd They commouly elected one of their own number, (though 
pope always dis- sometimes a foreign prince,) and the office always con- 
puung t esupre- (.jj^^yg^ Strictly elective, even when it passed several gene- 
rations from father to son, as it did in the ducal lines of 
Franconia, Saxony, Swabia, and Austria. In 960, Otho the Great, the 
third elective emperor of Germany, conquered Italy, and was croivned 
and anointed Roman emperor, with the usual title of Augustus, &c. 
Though in this manner he became acknowledged lord of Italy and the 
pope, yet this old ceremony of crowning and anointing, laid the founda- 
tion of those conflicting pretensions that kept Italy, Germany, and Eu- 
rope so long embroiled. The spiritual thunders of the popes prevailed 
at least as often as the carnal weapons of the emperors, who generally 
found one half their own princes arrayed against them in any conflict 
with a pope. This ghostly power over the minds of men, was first 
arrested about 1500, by the Protestant Reformation, and the strong arm 
of the emperor Charles V., who was as much an enemy to thepoUti- 
cal pretensions of the pope, as he was to the religious reformation of 
the people. 

During the Crusades, (see table for the East,) we see 
that^'^aiways*^ re the popes (1100 — 1270) Setting Christendom in holy com- 
power.'^*''^^*^^ motion, and directing to their own profit the wald enter- 
prises of fanatacism. The artful and uniform system of 
encroachment pursued by a long succession of popes, is worthy of our 
philosophic curiosity. But their authority was impaired particularly 



132 SARACENS. 

in Rome itself, by rival ambition, by competitors, and anti-popes — by 
their shameless profligacy, and by seditions. They overwhelmed many 
princes, but princes sometimes defied, and overwhelmed popes. Some- 
times two, and even three popes divided Christendom, and their own 
councils long questioned their supreme authority. Several attempts 
were made to subvert or restrain their temporal power at Rome, par- 
ticularly by Arnold of Brescia, who governed Rome ten years, 1140, 
and by Nicholas Rienza, who was near becoming the sovereign of 
Italy, 1347, (while the pope was at Avignon.) Even when distant 
■princes trembled at his name, the pope often had to seek refuge in the 
neighbouring cities from an enraged people. By the influence of the 
French kings and cardinals, the popes resided seventy years at Avig- 
non in France, and their return to Rome resulted in the famous schism 
of the west, 1377 — 1414. It was not till after their spiritual power 
«ame to a stand, 1500, that they began to enjoy a settled authority over 
their own capital. 



Crumbling period of the Saracen Empire. 

A.D.750 Spain was cut off from the empire. Its caliph was Abdurrah- 
man ; its capital Cordova. 
850 Morocco was cut off under a caliph named Mervanold, mean- 
ing " Commander of the Faithful." About the same time 
Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Egypt, were severed under their respec- 
tive caliphs. 

q,^Q Egypt, under caliphs called Fatimites, from Fatima the 
daughter of Mahomet, conquered the Holy Land and Syria. 
Persia and India were next lopped off, where there was a succes- 
sion of barbarous dynasties, till at last the caliph of Bagdad was a , 
miserable phantom, dressed in priestly robes, retaining the grandeur 
lof his palace and person. 

qqo The Bowides stripped the caliph Rhadi of his temporal 
power, and left him a mere priest. The Turks took the 
1055 temporal power. 



Historical sketch of the Turkish or Tartar 
Mahommedan Empire, 

This empire may be divided mio four periods, viz. 

'[st Period. — The pagan period of the Turks, extending from about 
.550 to about 850, 300 years, during which time they resided in the 
deserts of Scythia, in the centre of Asia. 

26? Period. — Their gradual conversion to the Mahommedan faith, 
extending from 850 to 1050, when they began to move, a period of 
200 years. 

3d Period. — The period of theii conquests, from 1050 to 1453, a 
jjeriod of 403 years. 



TABLE. 133 

4tth Period. — The period of the Turkish Mahommedan empire in 
Europe and the wars of Asia, from 1453 to the present time, 385 
years. 

1025 Turks begin to move west, and finding the Arabian empire 
crumbling to pieces, they overrun Persia, take Bagdad, and 
deprive the caliph of his authority as a prince, but respect him as a 
priest. 

The Seljukian Turks, or Turks descended from Seljuk, had three 
great leaders, Togrulbeg, Alparslem, and Malek Shah. 

.Q*p. They take the holy city from the Fatamite caliphs of Egypt, 
(who took it in 960) while another tribe, under Solyman, 
conquers Asia Minor and threatens Constantinople. The Turks, not- 
withstanding their great prowess and power, will be 400 years taking 
Constantinople. Why so long ? Because they were three times brok- 
en up, and three times rallied again. 

1100 Broken up — 1st, by the Crusaders, but rallied again. 
1200 " " 2d, by a new invasion of Tartars under Genghis 
Khan, but rallied again in Asia Minor, under 
Othman, 
1400 " " 3d, by a third inundation of Tartars under Ta- 
merlane. 



Table of the Kings of England. 

KINGS OF THE SAXON MONARCHY, 

From 828 to 1066— 238 years. 

A, D. 828 800 Egbert. 

Ethelwolf. 
Ethelbald. 
Ethelbert. 
Ethelred. 
Alfred. — 
A. D. 900 Edward, the Elder. 
(Athelstan.) 
Edmund. 
Edred. 
Edwy. 
Edgar. 

Edward the Martyr. — 
A. D. 1000 Ethelred 2d. 

Edmund Ironside. — 

Three Danish Kings, 

1000 Canute, Harold, and Hardicanute. 
Edward the Confessor. 
Harold. — ■ 
The whole period of the Saxon monarchy was distinguished by the 
incursions of a people they called Danes, but called by the French 
Normans. England conquered by the Normans 1066. 



134 TABLE. 

NORMAN FAMILY. 
From 1066 to 1154—88 years. 

William, Conqueror. 1066 — 1087 reisfned 21 years. 

William Rufus. 1087—1100 " 13 

A. D. nOO Henry \si. 1100—1135 35 

Stephen. 1135—1154 19 

PLANTAGENET. 
From 1154 to 1399—245 years. 

Henry 2d. 1154—1189 reigned 35 years. 

Richard 1st. 1189—1199 10 

A. D. 1200 John. 1199—1216 17 

Henry 3d. 1216—1272 56 

A. D. 1300 Edward Ui. 1272—1307 35 

Edward 2d. 1307—1327 -^ 20 

Edward 3d. 1327—1377 50 

Richard 2d. 1377—1399 22 

LANCASTER. 
From 1399 to 1471 (Lewis 14tli)— 72 years. 

A. D. 1400 Henry 4th. 1399— 14^3 reigned 14 years. 

Henry 5th. 1413—1422 9 

Henry 6th. 1422—1471 49 

YORK. 

From 1471 to 1485—14 years. 

Edward 4th. 1471—1483 reigned 12 years. 

Edward 5th was only crowned. 

Richard 3d. 1483—1485 2 

TUDOR. 

' From 1485 to 1603—118 years. (Punic Wars.) 

A. D. 1500 Henry 7th. 1485—1509 reigned 24 years. 

Henry 8th and 3 children. 1509 — 1547 38 

Edward 6th. 1547—1553 6 

Mary. 1553—1558 5 

Elizabeth. 1558—1603 45 

STEWART. 

From 1603 to 1714.— Ill years. (Cromwell off 100.) 

A. D. 1600 James 1st. 1603—1625 reigned 22 years. 

Charles 1st. 1625—1649 24 

Cromwell. 1649—1660 11 

Charles 2d. 1660—1685 25 

James 2d. 1685—1688 3 

A. D. 1700 William and Mary . 1688—1702 14 

Anne. 1703—1714 12 



T ABL E. 



135 



BRUNSWICK. 
From 1714 to 1838—134 yeara. 

George 1st. 1714 — 1727 reigned 13 years. 

George 2d. 1727—1760 33 

A. D. 1800 George 3d. 1760—1820 60 

George 4th. 1820—1830 10 

William 4th. 1830—1837 7 

Victoria. 1837 — 



Table of the Kings of France. 

The Merovingian Kings, or race of Clovis, (the Conqueror of Gaul,) 
reigned 250 years. 





CARLOVINGIAN. 






From 752 to 987—235 years. 






Pepin, 


752—768 reigned 16 years. 


A. D. 800 


Charles 1st.- — ■ 


768—814 


46 




Louis 1st 


814-840 


26 




Charles 2d.— 


840-876 


36 




Louis 2d 


876-879 


3 




Louis 3d. — 


879--884 


5 




Charles 3d 


884-888 


4 




Eudes 


888-898 


10 


A. D. 900 Charles the Simple- 


- 898-922 


24 




Robert 


922-923 


1 




Ealpho. — 


923--936 


13 




Louis 4th 


936--954 


18 




Lothaire 


954---986 


32 




Louis 5th 


986-987 


1 




CAPETIAN. (Eldest Branch.) 






From 987 to 1328—341 years. 




A. D. 1000 


Hugh Capet 


987— 996 reigned 


9 years, 




Robert 2d. 


996-1031 


35 




Henry. — 


1031-1060 


29 


A. D. 1100 


Philip 1st. 


1068-1108 


48 




Louis 6th. 


1108-1137 


29 




Louis 7th. — 


1137-1180 


43 


A. D. 1200 


Philip 2d. 


li80--1223 


43 




Louis 8th. 


1223-1226 


3 




Louis 9th. — 


1226-1270 


44 




Philip 3d. 


1270-1285 


15 


A. D. 1300 


Philip 4th. 


1285-1315 


30 




Louis 10th, — 


1315-1316 


1 




Philip 5th. 


1316-1322 


6 




Charles 4th. 


1322-1328 


6 



136 TABLE. 

VALOIS, (Capetian.) 
From 1328 to 1498—170 years. 

Philip 6th.— 1328—1350 reigned 22 years. 

John the Good. 1350—1364 14 

Charles 5th. 1364—1.380 16 

A. D. 1400 Charles 6th. 1380-1422 42 

Charles 7th. 1422-1461 39 

Louis 11th.— 1461—1483 22 

Charles 8th. 1483-1498 15 

ANGOULEME— Branch of Valois Capetian. 
From 1498 to 1589—191 years. 

A. D. 1500 Louis 12th. (orfeans.) 1498—1515 reigned 17 years. 
Francis 1st.— 1515-1547 32 

Henry 2d. 1547-1559 12 

Francis 2d. 1559-1560 1 

Charles 9th. 1560-1574 14 

Henry 3d. 1574-1589 15 

BOURBON, (Capetian.) 
From 1589 to 1838—249 years. Kevolution, and Napoleon off, 226 years. 

A. D. 1600 Henry 4th. 1589-1610 reigned 21 years. 

Louis 13th. 1610-1643 33 

Louis 14th. 1643-1715 72 

Louis 15th. 1715-1774 59 

Louis 16th. 1774-1792 18 

French Revolution 1 792- 1 799 7 

A. D. 1800 NapoleonJs career 1799—1814 16 
1814 Louis 18th. 1814-1824 
Charles 10th. 1824-1830 
Louis Philip 1830. 



Emperors of Germany. 

HEREDITARY EMPERORS. 
From 800 to 912—112 years. 

A. M. 800 Charlemagne. 800—814 reigned 14 years. 

Louis 1st.— 814—840 26 

Lothaire 1st. 840—855 15 

Louis 2d.— 855—875 20 

Charles 2d. 875-880 5 

Charles 3d.— 880—888 8 

Arnold 888—900 13 

A. D. 900 Louis — 900—912 12 



TABLE 



137 



ELECTIVE EMPERORS. 
Begin A.D. 912. 



Franconia, 
Saxony, 



A. D. 1000 

Bavaria, 



Franconia, 
A.D. 1100 

Saxony, 



Conrad 1st. 
Henry 1st. 
Otho 1st. 
Otho 2d. 
Otho 3d. 
Henry 2d.— 



Conrad 2d. 
Henry 3d. 
Henry 4th. 
Henry 5th. 
Lothaire2d. 



Swabiaand ["Conrad 3d. 
Franconia! Frederick 1st. — 

united. } Henry 6th. 
A.D. 1200. I Philip. 
Brunswick Otho 4th. 
Swabia and > Frederick 2d. 
Franconia, \ Conrad 4th. 



1st Class. 

912 — 918 reigned 6 years. 

918—936 18 

936—972 36 

972-.982 10 

982-1002 20 

1002—1024 22 

2d Class. 

1024—1040 reigned 16 years, 

1040—1056 16 

1056—1106 50 

1106—1125 19 

1125—1138 13 

3d Class. 

1138 — '1152 reigned 14 years. 

1152—1190 38 

1190—1198 8 

1198—1208 10 

1208—1212 4 

1212—1250 38 

1250—1254 4 



Holland, 
England, 
Castile, 



4th Class. 
(FOREIGN EMPERORS.) 
William, 1250 — 1256 reigned 6 years, 

Richard, ) 1256—1273 17 

Alphonzo, ^ 

5th Class. 
HAPSBURG AUSTRIANS. 
Begin A.D. 1273. 
Hapsburg, Rodolph 1st. 1273—1291 reigned 18 years. 



Nassau, Adolphus, 

1300 Hapsburg, Albert 1st, 
Luxemburgh, Henry 7th. 
Hapsburg, Frederick 3d. 
Bavaria, and Louis, 



1291—1298 
1298—1308 
1308—1314 



7 
10 
6 



Elected by 

different 

parties. 



1314—1347 33 



6th Class. 
LUXEMBURGERS. 



Luxemburg, Charles 4th. 
Wenceslaus, 
1400 Bavaria, Robert, 
Hungary, Sigismund, 



1347—1378 reigned 31 years. 
1378—1400 22 

1400_1410 10 

1410—14.38 28 



la 



138 TABLE. 

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 
From 1438 to 1745—307 years. 

Albert 2ci. 1438—1440 reigned 2 years. 

Frederick, 1440—1493 53 

A. D. 1500 Maximilian 1st.— 1493—1519 26 

Charles 5th. 1519—1558 39 

Ferdinand 1st. 155a— 1564 6 

Maximilian 2d.— 1564—1576 12 

A.D.I 600 Rodolph2d. 1576—1612 36 

Matthias — 1612—1619 7 

Ferdinand 2d. 1619—1637 18 

Ferdinand 3d. 1637—1658 21 

A. D 1700 Leopold 1st. 1658—1705 47 

Joseph, 1705—1711 6 

Charles 6th.— 1711—1741 30 

Bavaria, Charles 7th.— 1741—1745 4 

LORRAINE. 

From 1745 to 1838—73 years 

Francis 1st. 1745 — 1765 reigned 20 years. 

Joseph 2d. 1765—1790 25 

Leopold, 1790—1792 2 
A. D. 1800 Francis 2d, 1792, became first Emperor of Austria 1802. 



Kings of Spain. 

After the union of Arragon and Castile, by the marriage of Ferdinand 

and Isabella. 

AUSTRIAN— 1520. BOURBON— 1700. 

Charles 5th, or 1st. Philip 5th. 

Philip 2d. Ferdinand 6th. 

Philip 3d. Charles 3d. 

Philip 4th. Charles 4th. 

Charles 2d. Ferdinand 7th. 



Kings of Russia, from 1700. 

Peter the Great. Peter. 

Catherine. Catherine. 

Peter — Paul.— 

Anne. Alexander. 

Ivan — Nicholas. — 



TABLE 



139 



Centurial Monarchs of England, France, and 
Germany. 

KINGS OF ENGLAND. 

800 Egbert, 1st Saxon Monarch. 

900 Edward the Elder, 1st Saxon Edward. 

1000 (Edward) Canute, 1st Danish Monarch. 

1100 Henry First. 

1200 Richard First. 

1300 Edward First. 

1400 • Henry. 1st Lancaster. 

1500 Henry 7th. First Tudor. 

1600 James 1st. First Stewart. 

1700 William 3d. 

1800 George 3d. 

KINGS OF FRANCE. EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 

800 Charlemagne. Charlemagne. 

900 Charles the Simple. Conrad 1st. first elective Emperor. 

1000 Hugh Capet. Henry 2d. first Bavarian, 

1100 Philip 1st. , Henry 5th. last Franconian. 

1200 Philip 2d. Philip First. 

1300 Philip 4th, Albert 1st. 

1400 Charles, middle Valois. Robert First. 

1500 Loms IJth. middle invader > Maximilian 1st. 

1600 Henry 4th. 1st Bourbon. Rodolph 2d. 
1700 Louis 14th. Leopold 1st. 

1800 Louis 18th and Napoleon. Francis 2d. 



3250 
3750 



APPENDIX. 

Important Events of Ancient History^ in which we 
find a coincidence of dates. 

A.M. B.C. 

2000 2000 Sacred History begins with Abraham, i , -f.^, 

3500 500 Profane History, J I auu years apart. 

750 Jacob'schildren sojourning in Canaan, I it-nrx . 

250 Punic Wars, \ ^^"" y^^'' ^P^''" 

2500 1500 Moses, I 1500 vears anart 

4000 Birth of Christ. \ ^^"" ^^^^^ ^P^'^' 

2083 1917 Abraham, aged 75, crossed the Eu- f 
phrates into the Promised Land, I 

3283 717 Abraham's descendants carried cap- <| 1200 years apart, 
tive by the Assyrians over the same j 
river, t 

2298 1702 Jacob removes into Egypt, C 

3398 602 Daniel and many Jews taken captive < 1100 years apart, 
bv the Babylonians, ^ 

iSo" '^ Sotus. {.OOOyearsapan. 

^S ^^f^a. |4.7yea.apa„.l 

2083 1917 Calling, f 470 vears anart 

2553 1447 Conquest of Canaan, \ ^7" years apart. 

2553 1447 Conquest of Canaan, C 

3029 971 Dismemberment of the kingdom of < 476 years apart. • 
Israel, ^ 

3029 971 Dismemberment, C -,, 

3500 500 Close of sacred history, P'^ ^^^^^ ^P^"- 

3500 500 Close of sacred history, C 

3939 61 Final subjection of the Jews to the < 439 years apart. 
Romans, i 



Periods occupying a century, 

A.M. 

3456 to 3555 Struggle between the Greeks snd Persians. 

3555 3650 Struggle among the Greek states for supremacy, 

3650 3750 Macedonian career, 

3750 3858 Roman career of conquest. 

3858 3973 Period of Roman internal convulsions. 



142 



APPENDIX. 



Tables of Ancient Kings. 

For repealing and committing the names of kings, they are divided 
into portions indicated by a dash at the end of each portion. 



KINGS OF TROY. 




KINGS OF MACEDON. 


A.M. 


B.C. 


A.M. B.C. 


2380 Scamander, 


1620 


3200 Ceraunus, 800 


Teucer, 




Alexander, — 


Dardanus, 




Perdiccas, 


Ericthonius, 




Archelaus, — 


Tros, 




Philip, 


Ilus, 




Amyntas, — 


Laomedon, 




Philip, 


2780 Priam. 


1220 


Alexander, — 


— 




Empire divided. 


KINGS OP ASSYRIA. 




Cassander and his three 


Pul, 

Sardanapalus,— 
Tiglath-Pileser, 
Shalmanezer, — 
Sennacherib, 
Esarhaddon, — 




sons, 

Philip, 

Antipater, 

Alexander, — 
Demetrius Poliorcetes, 
Lysimachus & Pyrrhus, 


Nebuchadnezzar, 
3279 Saracus.— 


721 


Lysimachus alone, con- 
quered by Seleucus, 
conquered by Ptole- 
my Ceraunus, de- 


KINGS OF BABYLON. 




throned by Gauls, 


Nabonassar, 




Antigonus, son of Deme- 


Merodach Baladin, — 




trius Poliorcetes, 


Nabopolassar, — 




Demetrius, 


Nebuchadnezzar, — 




Antigonus, 


Evil Merodach, 




Philip, 


3466 Belshazzar.— 


534 


3836 Perseus. 164 
KINGS OF ROME. 


KINGS OF PERSIA, 






Arbaces, 
Dejoces, 




3250 Romulus, 750 
Numa Pompilius, 




Tullus Hostilius,— 


Phraortes, — 




Ancus Marcius, — 


Cyaxares 1st, 




Tarquin 1st, 


Astyages, 




Servius Tullius, 


Cyaxares 2d, — 
Cyrus, 




3500 Tarquin the Proud.— 500 


Cambyses, 




-^ 


Darius 1st, 




KINGS OP LYDIA. 


Xerxes, 




Candaules, 


Artaxerx«s litj 




Gyges, 


Darius 2d, — 




Ardys,— 


Artaxerxes 2d. 




Sadyattes, 


Artaxerxes 3d, 




Halyattes, 


3673 Darius 3d.— 


327 


3456 Croesus.— 644 



A P PE ND I X 



143 



A.M. 

3973 



KINGS OP SYRIA. 



Seleueus Nicator, 
Antiochus Soter, 
Antiochus Theos, 
Seleueus Callinicus, 
Seleueus Ceraunus, 
s'[Antioehus the Great, 
Seleueus Philopater, 
Antiochus Epiphanes, 
Antiochus Eupator, 
Demetrius Soter, 
Alexander Balus, 
Demetrius Nicator, 
Antiochus Theos, 
Diodotus Tryphon, 
Antiochus Sidetes, 
Alexander Zebina, 
Antiochus Grypus, 
Antiochus of Cyzicus, 
Seleueus, 

Antiochus Eusebes, 
Antiochus II th, 
Philip, 



B.C. 

437 



3939 



Demetrius Eucoerus, 
Antiochus Dionysius, 
Tigranes, king of Ar- 
menia, 
Antiochus Asiaticus. 



B.C. 



61 



PTOLEMYS OF EGYPT. 






3673 r Ptolemy Lagus, 437 

Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
Ptolemy Evergetes, 
Ptolemy Philopater, 
Ptolemy Epiphanes, 
Ptolemy Philometer, 
Ptolemy Physcon, 
Ptolemy Lathy rus, 
Ptolemy Alexander, 1st, 
Cleopatra, 

Ptolemy Alexander 2d, 
Ptolemy Auletes, 
Berenice, 
Ptolemy & Cleopatra, 

3973 Cleopatra conquered. 27 



Roman Emperors. 



1st Class — Julian Family. 

Julius Csesar, (Dictator,) 
Augustus " 
Tiberius " 
Caligula " 
Claudius " 
Nero " 

3d Class — Scattered Emperors, S^ 
all crowned in the same year. 
Galba, 
Otho, 
Vitellius. 

3d Class — Flavian Family. 
Vespasian, 
Titus, 
Domitian. 

4th Class — Five good Emperors. 
Nerva, 
Trajan, 
Adrian, 
Antoninus Pius, 



Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 
Commodus belongs to the 
family of the Antonines,but 
did not inherit their cha- 
racter. 

5th Class — Five Emperors crown- 
ed in one year. 
Pertinax, at Rome, 
Julian Didius, at Rome, 
Severus, on the Danube, 
Niger, in the East, 
Albinus, in the West, 

6th Class — Family of Severus. 
Severus, 
Caracalla, 
Geta, 
Macrinus, 
Alexander Severus. 

7th Class — Maximinus and his 
competitors. 
Maximinus, 



144 



APPENDIX. 



Gordian, 

Gordian, 

Maximus, 

Balbinus, 

Gordian. 

8th Class — Those under whom the 
Empire fell to pieces. 

Philip, 

Decius, 

^Emilianus, 

Gallus, 

Valerian, 

Gallienus. 

These are little more 

than emperors in Italy, ac- 
knowledged by the senate. 
9th Class — \st Class of Imperial 
Restorers. 

Claudius, 

Aurelian, 

Tacitus, 

Probus, 

Carus. 

These did not reign long 

enough to complete their 

work. 

10th Class — 2d Class of Restor- 
ers, or Imperial Colleagues 
and CcEsars. 

Diocletian, Eastern Au- 
gustus, 
Galerius his CcBsar. 
Maximian, Western .4m- 

gustus, 
Constantius his Caesar. 

11th Class — Constantine and his 
rivals. 
Severus, 
Maximian, 
Maxentius, 
Galerius, 



Maximinus, 

Licinius, 
Constantine victorious. 

12th Class — Constantine the 
Great Sf his three sons. 
Constantine — in the W. 
Canstans — in the middle, 
Constantius — in the E. 
Julian — sole emperor. 

13th Class — Valentinian Family. 
Valentinian — middle &W. 
Valens, E. 
Valentinian 2d, 
Gratian. 

14th Class — Theodosian Family/. 
Theodosius the Great, sole 
emperor, 

Honorius in the E. 
Arcadius in the W. 

After this the empire 
goes rapidly to destrtiction, 

15th C\ass— Nobodies, of whom 
Romulus Augustulus, 476, 
is the last. 

A.D. 100 Trajan. 

200 Severus. 

300 Constantine. 

400 Theodosius' death- 
empire divided. 

500 Settlement of the Bar- 
barians. 

600 Gregory the Great, St. 
Augustine and Maho- 
met. 

700 Africa and Spain con- 
quered by the Saracens. 

800 Charlemagne attempts 
to restore the Western 
Roman empire. 



A.D. 1 In the reign of Augustus the empire firm and unbroken. 

250 Broken in fragments. Thirty tyrants or usurpers. Franks and Alleman- 
ni on the Rhine, Ostrogoths and Visigoths north of the Black Sea, 
ready to pour down upon the empire. 
500 The Western empire completely occupied by Oerman savages. 
750 Pepin. Popes and Bagdad. 

Pepin, the founder of the Franks, or Clovingian empire. Popes become 

temporal princes. 
Bagdad the seat of the Saracen empire then in all its splendour. 



SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY. 

FIRST PERIOD.— FROM THALES TO SOCRATES. 
Ionic, Pythagoric, Eleatic, Atomic Schools, 

IONIC SCHOOL, 
Founded by Thales of Miletus, 600 B.C. He was the first who dis- 
cussed on principles of reason the origin of the world. Water was, 
in his opinion, the original element and spirit, the impulsive principle. 
His great moral maxim was Know thyself. 

Anaximaa- Anaximander, who flourished at Miletus about 610 B.C., 
'^s''- taught that the Infinite and the Divine were the primary ele- 
^jc'.Iio! ments. It is not, however, decided whether by the Divine 
he understood an essence distinct from the elements, or a 
subtle quality intermediate between water and air. 
Pherecydes. Pherecydes of Syros, his contemporary, though his junior, 
A.M. 3394. taught the same doctrine in the main; he recognized, how- 
ever, as the principle of all things, Jupiter or Ether, Time 
and the earth. He appears to have believed in the immortality of the 
soul, Anaximander and Pherecydes were the first who committed 
their doctrines to writing. 

Anaximenes. Anaximenes of Miletus flourished about 557 B.C. He 

AM. 3447. was the disciple of Anaximander, but limited the Infinite of 

■ his master as the primitive element to the Air, from certain 

observations on the origin of things and the nature of the soul. 

Hermotimus. Hermotimus, of Clazomenge, is said to have held the 

doctrine of a Superior Intelligence as the author of nature. 

Anaxagoras. Anaxagoras, born at Clazomenfe, 500 B.C. The great 

dogma of this philosopher was of an intellectual principle, 

from the inadequacj'' of those systems which recognized only material 

causes. He acknowledged the existence of primeval chaos, which he 

believed to be surrounded by air and ether, and to have been put in 

motion by the Intelligent Principle. This intelligence he considered 

the active and creative cause, endowed with spontaneous energy, but 

refined from all matter, pervading, defining, and limiting all things, 

and consequently the PRINCIPLE of life. In his forty- fifth year he 

settled himself at Athens, where he became the master and the friend 

of Pericles. His doctrines, however, exposed him to the charge of 

atheism, in consequence of which he was obliged to flee from that city, 

and retire to Lampsacus, where he ended his days. 

Diogenes. Diogenes, of Apollonia in Crete, the disciple of Anaximenes, 

a.m! 3528. taught after that philosopher that the fundamental principle 

was air, but blended with it the great dogma of Anaxagoras, 

by imputing to it n.n Intellectual Energy. He flourished about 472 B.C. 

Archeiaus. Archelaus, the Milesian, about 460 B.C., a disciple of 

A.M. 3540. Anaxagoras, and resident at Athens, taught that all things 

were evolved from chaos by the operation of the principles 

19 



146 APPENDIX. 

of heata.nd cold, ox fire and water, and that man had gradually separat- 
ed himself from the herd of inferior animals, thus making- the opera- 
tions of the mind material. His moral philosophy taught that the 
notions of right and wrong are not intrinsic, but conventional. 

The great method which distinguished the philosophers of the Ionic 
school may be termed experimental, from their mode of solving the 
first problem of philosophy concerning the origin or elementary prin- 
ciple of the world. 

PYTHAGORIC, OR ITALIC SCHOOL, 
Founded at Croto in Italy, about 527 B.C. 
p„fho„^v.a Pythagoras, the founder of this school, ascribed an occult 

X yiiiagoras. j o iiii i- r 

A.M. 3473. power to words and numbers, and looked upon the science or 
arithmetic as containing the essence of all philosophical 
knowledge. Hence, his school has also been called the 3Iathematical. 
Numbers were defined by him as the principle of all things ; and the 
ten elementary numbers which contain a complete system of enumera- 
tion, contain also the elements of a perfect system of nature. Accord- 
ing to the Pythagoreans, the world was an harmonious whole, consist 
ingof ten great bodies revolving around a common centre, in confor- 
mity with certain harmonious laws. The centre, or central fire, the 
sun, was the most perfect object in nature, from which the soul, also a 
number, emanates, resembling it by its immortality and its constant ac- 
tivity, capable of combining with any body, and passing successively 
through several. This metempsychosis appears to have been connect- 
ed in Plato's mind with moral retribution. In this system the stars 
were, of coui'se, divinities, and man, with even the inferior animals, 
participated in the divine nature. Between gods and men the Pytha- 
goreans supposed an intermediate race of demons, to whose agency 
were ascribed, in a great measure, dreams and portents, the subjects of 
divination. To the same school are due the first attempts at analysis 
of the operations and faculties of the mind. The understanding and 
intellectual faculties they placed in the brain, the will and the appetite 
in the heart. They were, perhaps, the first also who ennobled the 
idea of Deity by the attribution of moral qualities, such as truth and be- 
neficence. The society of Pythagoreans established in Italy contem- 
plated the political as well as the moral improvement of society, in con- 
sequence of which, the fraternity was suppressed, or rather dispersed, 
in something less than thirty years, about 510 B.C. 

ELEATIC SCHOOL. 
The fundamental doctrine of this school was the rejection of expe- 
rience, and the deriving of all knowledge from the mind itself as the 
only foundation of truth. 

X no hanes Xenophanes, of Colophon, the contemporary of Pythago- 
' ras, established himself and his school at Elia or Velia, in Mag- 
na Grecia. Adhering to the old doctrine, that nothing proceeds from 
nothing, he argued that nothing could pass from non-existence into 
existence. Hence, whatever exists must have ever existed, and be im- 
mutable. God is one and unalterable, neither finite nor infinite, nei- 
ther moveable nor immoveable ; he is all hearing, all thought, all 



SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY. 147 

sig-ht, and his form is spherical. Xenophanes was the first one who 
divested the Deity of the gross images under which he had before been 
represented. 

Parmenides. Parmenides of Elia, about 460 B.C., taught a modification 

A.M. 3540. of the same doctrine, maintaining that the underistanding 

alone was capable of contemplating truth, while the senses 

afforded but a deceptive appearance of it. 

Meiisus. Melissus, of Samos, about 444 B.C., was the boldest, and, 

■A.M.3556. perhaps, the ablest master of this school, with the exception 

■ of Zeno. He carried his idealism so far as to deny that our 
senses present us any thing more than appearances, which are alto- 
gether beyond the limits of real knowledge. 

Zeno. Zeno, of Elia, the disciple of Parmenides, 460 B.C., may 

'^•'^•3540. be considered as the great master, if not the founder of this 

B.C. 460. ,1 o ' 

school. 

ATOMIC SCHOOL. 
Leucippus. Leucippus, an Ionian, probably of Miletus, who flourish- 
Vc50o°" ^^ about 500 B.C., originated the Atomic theory. This 

■ theory Avas carried out by his great disciple Democritus. 
Deraocritus. He maintained the impossibility of infinite division, suppos- 
ing the atoms originally similar, to be endowed with certain 

properties, such as impenetrability and density, proportioned to their 
volume. He referred every active and passive affection to motion 
caused by impact, limited^ by the principle that only like can act on 
like. From the endless multiplicity of atoms have resuhed the worlds 
of the universe. The soul, in his doctrine, consists of globular atoms 
of fire, which impart movement to the body. Maintaining through- 
out his atomic theory, Democritus introduced the hypothesis of images, 
— a species of emanation from external objects, which make an impres- 
sion on our senses, and from the influence of which he reduced sensa- 
tion and thoughts. He is vulgarly called the laughing philosopher. 

HERACLITUS AND EMPEDOCLES. 
These philosophers, though flourishing in the first period, can hard- 
ly be referred to any of the above schools of philosophy. By birth, 
however, the former, being an Ephesian, belonged to the Ionian. The 
results of his reflections were given in a volume, which, on account of 
its obscurity, obtained for him the name of the Dark. With him fire 
was the foundation of all things, and the universal agent. He main- 
tained the universe to be neither the work of gods nor men, but a liv- 
ing fire, with alternations of decay and resuscitation. The soul, by its 
consanguinity to the Divine mind, according to him, is capable, hy al- 
straction, of recognizing the universal and the true ; whereas, by the 
exercise of the organs of the senses, it perceiveth only what is individ- 
ual and variable. He is vulgarly called the crying philosopher. 
Bmpedocies. Empedocles, of Agrigentum, about 441 B.C., or perhaps 
A.M. 3558. earlier, has been called both the disciple of Pythagoras and 
" '^' ' Parmenides. He defined the soul to consist in a combina- 
tion* of the four elements, which thus, by the analogy subsisting be- 
-tween the subject and the object, possessed itself of a knowledge of ex- 
ternal things. 



148 APPENDIX. 

SOPHISTS. 
These were a class pf men who may rather be considered as Dialec- 
ticians and Rhetoricians than philosophers. Their aim was to distin- 
guish themselves bj' a show of universal knowledge, by solving the 
most intricate, fanciful, and useless questions ; and by pretended instruc- 
tion in the art of persuasion, they sought to amass inordinate fortunes. 
With this view they had contrived certain logical tricks to perplex 
their antagonists ; and without possessing in the least degree the spirit 
of philosophy, they maintained all sorts of philosophical theories. 
Gorcias. Thus the celebrated orator Gorgias, of Leontium, a disciple 
A.M. 3564. of Empedocles, 440 B.C., endeavoured to demonstrate that 

nothing really exists. 
Protagoras. Protagoras, of Abdera, maintained that every way of con- 
sidering a subject has its opposite, and that there is as much 
truth on one side as the other. He was banished from Athens for 
atheism, and died 408 B.C. The other most celebrated 
"^8.0.408? sophists of this period were Prodicus of Ceos, Diagoras of 
Melos, and Critias of Athens, the enemy of Socrates. 

SECOND PERIOD. 



Socrates, 



Socrates, the founder of a new era, though not of a particu- 
A.M.ssSi. lar school in philosophy, was born at Athens, 470 B.C., and 
was the son of a sculptor named Sophroniscus, and of Phae- 
nareta a midwife. Rejecting, in a great measure, the physical specu- 
lations of the former period, he sought, as the principal object of his 
philosophy, the attainment of correct and popular ideas concerning 
moral and religious obligation ; concerning the end of man's being, and 
the perfection of his nature. The enmity which he brought upon him- 
self by his ridicule of mysticism and philosophical charlatanism, at 
AM 3604 ^^^^ occasioned his death by the judgment of the _^ye hun- 
b'.c.'W dred, 400 B.C. 

The Partial Schools among the Socratics were those of the 

CYNICS, 

Established by Antisthenes the Athenian, and of which the principal 
disciple was Diogenes of Sinope. The 

CYRENAICS, 
Aristippus. By Aristippus of Cyrene, who made the summum honum to 
"^B^daso,' consist in enjoyment — good taste and freedom of mind. 
A.M. .'5704. Aristippus, his grandson, was the first to develope on 
B.C. 300. these principles the complete system of self-indulgence. 
, Theodorus of Cyrene, taking, like his predecessor, sensa' 

tion for the basis of his doctrine, ended by denying the exis- 
tence of all objects of perception, and thus opened a way for the scep- 
tic school, framing a system of indifferentism, which excluded all differ- 
ence of right or wrong in morals and in religion, and assuming j»/ea- 
iure as the final end of existence. This branch of the Cyrenaic school 
was called the Theodorian. 



SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY. 149 

THE SCEPTICS 

Pvrrho. Arose in part out of the Cyrenaic. — Their master was Pyr- 

^•M. 3664. rho of Elis, 340 B.C. His most illustrious disciple was 

Timon of Phlius, about 272 B.C. He maintained that the 

™°"" doctrine of the Dogmatics was founded on mere hypothesis— 

that the objects of their speculations do not come within the reach of 

certain knowledge — that all science is to be accounted vain as not 

contributing to happiness. 

THE MEGARIC, 
Founded by Euclid of Megara, 400 B.C., whose principal object was 
the cultivation of Dialectics, on the principles of Socrates and the 
Eleatics. The other philosophers of this school were Philo, and others 
of not much note, with Stilpo, who derives his principal re- 
B'.c.'m' putation from his dogma, made afterwards so important by 
his disciple Zeno, viz. that wisdom consists in apathy. 
The schools of Elis and Eretria were founded by Pheedo and Men- 
edemus, and their doctrines were those of the school of Megara. 

Greater systems proceeding from the Socratics. 

The school of the Academy, founded by Plato on the systems of the 
Rationalists, and another by Aristotle on those of the Empirics. The 
former arguing from the phenomena of the mind or world within, the 
latter from those of the world without. From the Cynic school sprung 
the Stoics, and from the Cyrenaics the Epicureans, the opposition to 
which produced the Scepticism of the latter Academy. 

PLATO 
A.M. 3574. Was born at Athens, 430 B.C., of the family of Codrus and 

B.C. 430. QqIq,^^ fjg .^^^g (.}jg founder of the Academy, the most fa- 
mous school of Greek philosophy, and died 348 B.C. He held the 
doctrine of the existence in the soul of certain innate ideas, which form 
the basis of our conceptions, and the elegance of our practical resolu- 
tions. To Plato is due the first attempt at the construction of a philo- 
sophical language, and the division of philosophy into logic, (Dialec- 
tics,) metaphysics, (Physiology or Physics,) and morals. Plato de- 
fined virtue to be the imitation of God, or the effort of man to attain to 
a resemblance of his original. Virtue is one, but compounded of four 
elements — wisdom, constancy, temperance and justice. Beauty he 
considered to be the sensible representation of moral and physical per- 
fection, consequently, it is one with truth and goodness, and inspires 

A.M. 3665. ^0^®' which leads to virtue. The principal disciples of Plato 

B.c! 339.' "were Speusippus, his nephew and successor, died 339 B.C. 
Xenocrates of Chalcedon, who taught the doctrines of Plato 

B.a 314.' in the language of the Pythagoreans, and who died 314 B.C., 
and Grantor of Soloe, who adhered most nearly to the doc- 
trines of his master. To these must be added the celebrated master 
of the New Academy— 

ARISTOTLE 
A.M.3620. Was horn at Stagira, 384 B.C. In 343 having been the dis- 
^- • ■ ciple of Plato, he became the preceptor of Alexander, and in 



150 



APPENDIX, 



Bc" 3m'' ^^^ ^^ founded a new school in the walks of the Lyceum, 
whence his school was called Peripatetic. He died in 

n'r' w~' ^'^^' ^^ Chalcis in Eubcea, having, as it is supposed, swal- 
lowed poison on being obliged to leave Athens under suspicion 
of atheism. He rejected the doctrine of ideas, maintaining that all our 
impressions and thoughts, and even the highest efforts of understand- 
ing, are the fruit of experience. Instead of following his master in 
reasoning from the universal to the particular, he always infers the 
former from the latter. Aristotle comprised within the limits of phi- 
losophy all the sciences, rational, empirical, or mixed, with the excep- 
tion of history, and divided it as a whole into logic, physics and ethics, 
or mto sjyeciilative and practical. Speculative philosophy is divided 
into physics, cosmology, psychology and theology. Practical philoso- 
phy comprehends ethics, politics and economy. The most distinguish- 
ed of the immediate followers of Aristotle were Theophrastus, his fa- 

A.M. 3684. vourite disciple, Eudemus of Rhodes, Dicaearchus, Strato 

B.C. 320. of Lampsacus, and Demetrius Phalerius. 

EPICURUS, 
A.M. 36G7. Born near Athens, 337 B.C. According to him, philosophy 
■ ■ ' ■ directs us to happiness by means of reason, consequently, 
ethics form a principal part of his system, while physics are secondary, 
and dialectics hold the lowest place. He regarded the snmmum bomim 
to be a state exempt from suffering, the satisfaction of all our ne- 
cessary and natural desires. The pleasure and pains of the mind ex- 
ceed those of the body. To attain happiness, therefore, it is necessary 
to make a choice, and to rule our desires by help of reason and free- 
will ; consequently, prudence, is the first of virtues, and next, modera- 
tion and justice. Virtue having no value but for the conse- 
quences which attend her, viz. her inseparable alliance with enjoy- 
ment. His physical system was founded on the Atomic school of De- 
mocritus, whence, in his theology, he was reproached with atheism, 
though he himself avowed the contrary. 

ZENO AND THE STOICS. 

A.M. 3664. Zeno was born about 340 B.C., at Cittium in Cyprus, and 
after having attended the various Socratic schools, became 
himself the founder of a new one in the Porch (Stoa) at Athens, oppos- 
ed particularly to the doctrines of the Sceptics and the Epicureans, 
and which became memorable for its rigid principles of morality, for 
the influence it possessed in the world, and for its resistance to vice and 
tyranny. According to the Stoics, (so called from Stoa,) philosophy 
is the science of human perfection, which develops itself in Thought, 
Knowledge and Action. Its three subdivisions are Logic, Phi- 
losophy, and Ethics, the latter being the most important. In the 
establishment of these principles, the Stoics followed the system of em- 
piricism. The logic of the Stoics was of wider application than that 
of Aristotle, comprehending Grammar, Rhetoric, and even Psycho. 
LOGY. Their physiology was founded in a measure upon that of He- 
raclitus, and Chrysippus. One of the most illustrious disciples of the 
school, deduced from the application of this theory to theology a sys- 



SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY. 151 

tern of Optimism, and an attempt to explain the Mythological Polythe- 
ism. The soul was with them a portion of the soul of the world, but 
corporeal and perishable: and Cleanthes and Panetius went so far as 
to endeavour to establish its mortality by proof. The grand formulary 
of the Stoics was to live conformably to the law of right reason, or, to 
live conformably to nature. Their morality was built upon the funda- 
mental attributes oi order, legality and reason — as the only means by 
which man can attain to the end of his being — virtue. Their funda- 
mental practical principles were — that virtue is the only absolute good ; 
vice the only positive evil ; that virtue is founded on prudence, while 
vice is an inconsistent mode of action, resulting from the neglect or the 
perversion of reason, accompanied by evil passions, which are voluntary 
and blameable ; that virtue is one and vice is one, neither of them being 
capable of augmentation or diminution ; the former being manifested 
under four principal characters, prudence, constancy, temperance and 
justice, tvith a corresponding number of vices. That the virtuous man 
is exempt from passions, though not insensible to them, and that these 
ought to be not moderated but eradicated. 

As a consequence of the unity of virtue and vice, the Stoics could 

admit of but two descriptions of men, viz. the ^ood^ and the bad. From 

the doctrine of absolute liberty they were obliged to acknowledge man's 

right, as a part of his absolute freedom, to deprive himself of life. 

A.M. 3742. Zeno died about 262 B.C., having taught in public nearly 

B.C. 262. forty years. The various successive masters of the school 

AM.^3740. ■^^J'^ Cleanthes of Assos, about 264 B.C., his disciple Chry- 

B.c. 264. sippus of Soloe, called The Pillar of the Porch, who died 

AM 3894 ^"^^^^ ^^^ B.C., Zeno of Tarsus, Diogenes of Babylon, and 

B.C." 210.' Panetius of Rhodes, the friend and companion of Scipio 

Africanus. 

THE NEW ACADEMY. 
The founder of this school oi Doubters was Arcesilaus of Pitane in 
Eolia, born 316 B.C. Plis school, which vv^as generally known as 
the New Academy, was sometimes called the Middle. It was found- 
ed principally in opposition to Crantor and Zeno. The most illustri- 
ous master of this school, who has been considered by some the foun- 
A M 3789 *^^^ °^ ^ ""^^^^ academy, was Carneades of Cyrene, born about 
b'.c' 215.' 215 B.C. His system was one of Probabilities, maintaining 
that all that can be inferred is probability in three degrees. 
He attacked the theology of the Stoics, and proved that we cannot apply 
to the Divinity our ideas of existence and morality, exposing the falla- 
cies attending the practice of attributing to the Deity a human form. 
A M 3935 ^^^^° °^ Larissa, and Antiochus of Ascalon, who died 69 
B.C. 69.' B.C., in some degree endeavoured to reconcile the two oppos- 
ing systems of dogmatism and scepticism. The former has 
been considered as the founder of a fourth academy, and the latter, 
who derived from conscience an argument against scepticism, of a 
fifth. 



152 APPENDIX. 

Greek Races. 

The earliest populations of Greece were of Pelasgic origin, who, 
long before the period of authentic history, had established the civiliz- 
ation of communities in various parts of the northern and southern di- 
visions of that country. They were an agricultural people, and were 
the true founders of society in Greece. At a date still anterior to the 
commencement of history, the more barbarous tribes of the same ori- 
gin, who had become distinguished, however, by another name, (Hel- 
lenes) dispossessed the Pelasgi, expelling numbers, who then assumed 
the wandering character by which they were subsequently known, and 
reducing the rest to various grades of servitude. For a long time the 
agricultural character, and all the habits of the early civilization, were 
identified with this degraded caste, and the occupations of war were 
the sole exercise of the heroic Hellenes. With this begins ihe Heroic 
or Epic period of Greece. 

The affinity of all the tribes of this common race was represented 
after the symbolical fashion of the Greeks, by a traditionary descent 
from a common ancestor, (Hellen,) whose name was obviously derived 
in after times from that of the race whose origin it was intended sym- 
bolically to represent. 

The Hellenic race, which may be traced originally from Thessaly, 
was spread at the commencement of the period of authentic history 
over the greater part of Greece, although its various inhabitants were 
not designated collectively by the name of Hellenes till a much later 
era. 

The symbolical representation of the whole race as descended from 
one man, (Hellen,) was carried out in the deduction of the various sub- 
divisions or secondary races. Thus the Jilolians were all traced in 
the genealogical tradition to ^olus, the son of Hellen, and the Dorians 
to another son, Dorus, while the lonians, who certainly entered the 
Hellenic system later, and whose Pelasgic origin was acknowledged 
in the time of Herodotus, were deduced from Ion, the son of Xuthus, 
and grandson of Hellen. 

Before the great revolution attending the Doric conquest of the Pe- 
loponnesus, these races were distributed generally over the country 
thus — 

The iEoLiANs possessed so much of Thessaly as was Hellenic, 
Bceotia, Acarnania, Phocis, Locris, and the Peloponnesus, with the 
exception of that portion which was subsequently called Achaia. 

The DoKiANS occupied, as their proper country, a small region be- 
tween Locris, JEtolia and Thessaly, separated from the latter by the 
range of Mount CEta. 

The loNiANS were limited to Attica, Megaris, and the northern coast 
of the Peloponnesus. 

About 80 years after the Trojan war, began the revolution alluded 
to above, and which lasting upwards of 150 years, resulted in chang- 
ing entirely the settlements of the different races. The Dorians, assist- 
ed by the ^Etolians, expelled or subdued the ..^olic populations of the 
Peloponnesus^ extending their conquests over the adjacent islands and 



GRECIAN SETTLEMENTS. 153 

t'ne neighbouring Megaris. They had before established in their 
progress new and powerful settlements in BcEotia, Locris and Euboea. 
The iEolians, thus driven from their seats, became in their turn 
aggressors, and expelling the lonians from the northern coast of the 
Peloponnesus, (called until that time ^gialus,) took up their perma- 
nent abode in that region, which assumed from them, and ever after 
retained, the name of Achaia. 

The important changes effected by the extensive movements of the 
Doric people are identified in the poetic legends with the story of the 
Heraelidae, their expulsion from the Peloponnesus by Eurystheus, 
their reception by ^gimius, king of the Dorians, their return to the 
Peloponnesus with the Dorians as allies, and their expulsion of the 
Pelopidae. 

C4RECIAN SETTLEMENTS IN ASIA, 

Like all the incidents connected with the early civilization of the 
Greeks, the Hellenic settlements in Asia Minor received a poetical 
and semi-mythological colouring. They were connected with the 
traditions of the Heraelidae, and interwoven with them into one syste^ 
matic narration. The flight of the lonians from jEjialus, (Achaia,) 
and their reception by their brothers of Attica, occasioned naturally an. 
increase of population in that state beyond the means of support; and 
this increase, occurring at a moment of political excitement arising 
out of the decline of the kingly office, rendered a migration at once 
necessary to the mass of the people, and acceptable to the malcon- 
tents. Headed by Penthilus, a large body of lonians, crossing over 
into Asia, established themselves on the coast of Mysia, in that part 
which their frequent piratical expeditions, and their long wars, repre- 
sented poetically in the legend of the Siege of Troy, had made known 
to the Greeks. These lonians, however, did not compose the mass of 
the migrating body, for the iEolians, following the fortunes of their 
prince in greater numbers, attached themselves to the expedition. This 
is called the jEolic Migratiox, and the portion of Asia Minor thus 
occupied assumed the name of ^olia In this legend the influence of 
the iEolian prince Penthilus represents probably nothing else than 
the predominance of the^olic race in the establishment of the colony. 

About sixty years afterward, the same causes still operating to produce 
an unnatural increase of population in Attica, and the final abolition of 
the kingly oflice, induced a second migration. This was headed by 
Nileus, the son of Codrus. He conducted large numbers, whom want, 
or dissatisfaction at the political changes rendered willing to undergQ 
the dangers and difficulties of migration. The example' of the iEoli- 
ans naturally directed them to the opposite coast of Asia, and crossing 
the ^gean, they established themselves south of ^olia, along the 
coasts of Lydia and a part of Caria. From them this region was call^ 
ed Ionia. 

The success of the Dorians in the Peloponnesus had the effect of 
putting into motion large bodies of that race from their original seats, 
at first, and afterwards from the Peloponnesus itself, where they found 

20 



154 HELLENIC COLONIES. 

the most advantageous places pre-occupied by others of their own race. 
It was not until many attempts had been made inefficaciously, that they 
succeeded in reducing Megaris ; and to their ill success in their first 
efforts directed to this end, has been ascribed the Doric migration to 
Asia. It is natural to suppose, however, that without this incentive, 
the example of the iEolians and lonians, and the inducements of an 
easy conquest and a fertile country, would have allured thither a peo- 
ple so restless as the Dorians. The only portion of the western coast 
of Asia Minor which remained unoccupied, was that which extended 
south from Ionia in Caria, to the borders of Lycia. Here then, the 
Dorians established themselves, imparting their name to the country; 
and thus terminated the line of Greek colonies in Asia, from the Hel- 
lespont to the Mediterranean. This last migration was either attend- 
ed or followed by the subjugation of the intervening islands, that is to 
say, Cythera, Thera, Crete, Rhodes, &c. 

HELLENIC COLONIES IN ITALY; 

The name of Magna Grecia applied to that part of Italy in which these 
settlements were effected is testimony of their number and importance, 
yet no accurate and systematic account of their origin, deduced from any 
early authority, has come down to our time. Sybaris, Crotona, Meta- 
pontum, and Caulon, were among the earliest and most celebrated of these 
colonies. They were founded about 720 B.C., by the Achaians, who 
were soon followed by a Doric colony which settled at Tarentum. 
Locri and Rhegium were founded about the same time, most probably 
by Achaians, that is to say, Locri by the Opuntii, and Rhegium by 
the Messenians and Zancleans. It was not until a later period that 
the lonians established the colonies ofSiris and Scyllatium. 

Heraclea, the seat of the general council of the Greek states, was 
a Doric colony, founded by the Tarentines after the destruction of 
Siris, 428 B.C. To these colonies must be added the important towns - 
of Velia and Thurii ; the former founded by the lonians of Phocea, 
and the latter by Attics (lonians) in the time, and at the suggestion of 
Pericles. 

But far before all these were the Doric colonies in Sicily. The first 
and greatest of them was Syracuse, founded by one of the Heraclidae 
from Corinth, famous in her history, and powerful as the mother city 
of Agrigentum, Ca marina, &c. 

The Dorians, besides their settlements in Europe and Asia, had es- 
tablished a flourishing colony in Africa, by the 600th year B.C. It 
was called Cyrene, and very soon became strong enough to contend 
with the kingdoms of Egypt and Lybia. 



ERRATA. 

In Lecture I. page 8, line 21 fiom top, for 31 50 read 3250. 
" "' page9, line IG from boltom, for 2383 read 3283. 

" " II. page 21, line 9 from bottom, for 2573 read 3573. 
" " II. page 26, line 15 from top, for Sparta read Athens. 
In the Introduction to Ancient Geography, p. 3, line 8 from top, for Pelopcnnesus read Peloponnesus. 
" " " " same page, line 3 from bottom, for Selerecidcc read SeleMCidK. 

" " " " same page, bottom line, for Saleucia read Seleucia. 

. " " " " page 5, lines 18 and 20 from top, for £«*£« read EuBOEA. 

In the Hebrew History, page 29, line 4 from top, for 2430 read 2433. 
In tlie History of Egypt, page 79, line 11 from top, for Alexander read Augustus. 
In the heading of ihe Chronological Index, p. 86, for— A. M. 3750 to 4554, read 3250 to 4004. 
In the Roman History, page 107, lines 2 and 4 from bottom, for Maximus read M.\.ximinus. 

" " " page 108, line 17 frojn top, Velerlan should be Valerian. 

In the Table of the Kings of France, page 135, line 11 from bottom, Philip 1st. 106S, should be 1060. 
" " " " page 136, line 11 from top, in the heading, 19] years should be 

91 years. 

" " " " samepage, before Louis XIV. should be inserted A. D. 1700. 

5:5= There maybe a few others, which it was impossible to avoid in a first edition. 



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